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Нажимая кнопку "Продолжить", я принимаю политику конфиденциальности

This – that, these – those

Here-there, now-then one – ones

Such – so

The former – the latter

 

In most of the cases (but not in all of them), you will have to go BACK in the text.

Examples:

1. Thomas Edison was born in 1847. He went to school for only three

months but his mother taught him at home.

All 3 reference words here refer to Thomas Edison.

1. The Bedouins usually live in tents. These are a good protection from the sun.

“These” refers to “tents”.

1. Which course should I take? Don’t take the one given in the evening.

The word “one” refers to “course”.

1. Smoking is dangerous. Everyone knows that.

“That” refers to the fact that “smoking is dangerous.

1. Children’s specific needs may change with age and circumstances but such changes are not important compared to their basic and invariable need for love and affection.

“Such changes” refers to changes in specific needs that depend on age and circumstances. “their” refers to “children”.

APPENDIX 7

ADJECTIVE

EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR FORMS
ADJECTIVES	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
MUCH/MANY	MORE	THE MOST
FEW/LITTLE	LESS	THE LEAST
GOOD	BETTER	THE BEST
BAD	WORSE	THE WORST
ADJECTIVES Regular forms requiring ‘ER’ or ‘EST’
IMPORTANT GRAMMATICAL POINTS	ADJECTIVES	COMPARATIVE FORMS (….....ER)	SUPERLATIVE FORMS (THE …..EST)
Adjectives with one syllable only	THIN	THINNER	THE THINNEST
Adjectives ending in a single consonant which must be doubled	FAT	FATTER	THE FATTEST
Adjectives with one syllable, but ending in E	FIERCE	FIERCER	THE FIERCEST
Adjectives with one syllable + Y (Y changes to I)	FRIENDLY	FRIENDLIER	THE FRIENDLIEST
ADJECTIVES Regular forms requiring ‘MORE’ or ‘THE MOST’ Adjectives with more than one syllable, Adjectives ending with ED or ING
ADJECTIVES	COMPARATIVE FORMS (MORE/LESS ….....)	SUPERLATIVE FORMS (THE MOST/THE LEAST .......)
DANGEROUS	MORE/LESS DANGEROUS	THE MOST/THE LEAST DANGEROUS
BORED (even though only one syllable is pronounced)	MORE/LESS BORED	THE MOST/THE LEAST BORED
INTERESTING	MORE/LESS INTERESTING	THE MOST/THE LEAST INTERESTING

 

APPENDIX 8

INVERSION

The order of words in which the predicate is placed before the subject is called inversion.

Inversion is full when the whole predicate is placed before the subject or partial when only the auxiliary or modal verb precedes the subject.

Full inversion is used in sentence with the introductory there.

Full inversion occurs in declarative sentences beginning with adverbial modifiers of place if the subject of the sentence is a noun and the predicate is an intransitive verb.

Full inversion takes place when the sentence begins with the words here, there, now, thenif the subject is a noun.

Full inversion is used when the words up, off, out, down,open the sentence but only when the subject is a noun.

Full inversion is found with the verb to say, to answer, to reply,used after direct speech if the subject is a noun and the verb has no object.

Partial inversion takes place in sentences beginning with such words as never, seldom, rarely, little, in vain, hardly, scarcely, not only, nor, neither, no sooner than, nowhere, never (before), not (even) once, on no account, only by, only in this way, only then, hardly (ever)…when, no sooner …than, not until/till, in no way, in/under no circumstances, not since.

Seldom do we go outsince the baby was born.

Never (before) have I seensuch a beautiful woman.

APPENDIX 9

REPORTED SPEECH

Rules for changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech.

Rule :1. The adverbs of nearness should be put into those of distance.

Direct Speech	-	Indirect Speech
now	-	Then
here	-	There
this	-	That
these	-	Those
ago	-	Before
thus	-	So
to-day	-	that day
to-night	-	that night
yesterday	-	the day before (or) the previous day
tomorrow	-	the next day (or) the following day
last week	-	the week before
next week	-	the week after

Rule: 2. Tenses.

• If the reporting verb is in the Present or Future tense (e.g., say, will say) there is no change in the tense of the verb in the Indirect speech.
  Antony says, “I eat a mango”. (D.S.)
  Antony says, that he eats a mango”. (I.S.)
• If Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense. The tense of the verbs in the reported speech or Indirect Speech must be generally changed.

1. Present Tense in the Direct becomes p.ast tense.
Johnsi said, “I write a letter”. (D.S)
Johnsi said that she wrote a letter. (I.S)

2. Past Tense in the direct becomes past perfect or remains unchanged.
Angel said, “I brought a pen yesterday”. (D.S)
Angel said that she had bought a pen the day before. (I.S)

3. Present Continuous in the direct becomes past continuous.
John said, “I am going to church”. (D.S)
John said that he was going to church. (I.S)

4. Past Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
Nelson said, “I was playing cricket”. (D.S)
Nelson said that he had been playing cricket. (I.S)

5. Present Perfect in the direct becomes past perfect.
Kamal said, “I have done my home work”. (D.S)
Nelson said that he had done his home work. (I.S)

6. Present Perfect Continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
He said, “I have been reading a novel”. (D.S)
He said that he had been reading a novel. (I.S)

7. ‘Will’ and ‘Shall’ are changed to ‘would’.
He said, “I will go to London tomorrow”. (D.S)
He said that he would go to London the next day. (I.S)

8.

may	-	Might
can	-	Could
must	-	had to (or) must

Johnsi said, “I must go now”. (D.S)
Johnsi said that she must (or) had to go then. (I.S)

Exception to the above rule:
If the direct speech contains the Universal Truth, the tense of the direct speech remains unchanged even if the reporting verb is in the past.

The teacher said, “The sun rises in the East”. (D.S)
The teacher said that the sun rises in the East. (I.S)

Statement (or) Assertive Sentence
Rules:

• Remove the quotation marks in the statement
• Use the conjuction ‘that’
• Change the reporting verb ‘say to’ into ‘tell’
• Change the reporting verb ‘said to’ into ‘told’

Note:

• He said that (correct)
• He told me that (correct)
• He told that (Incorrect)

1. “I will work hard to get first class” said Lazar (D.S.)
   Lazar said he would work hard to get first class. (I.S.)
   
   2. “You can do this work” said Nelson to Johnsi (D.S.)
   Nelson told Johnsi that he could do that work. (I.S.)
   
   3. He says, “I am glad to be here this evening”(D.S.)
   He says that he is glad to be there that evening. (I.S.)
   
   4. “I‘m going to the library now” said David (D.S.)
   David said that he was going to the library then. (I.S.

 

APPENDIX 10

EMPHASIS

We can put emphasis on certain words or parts of a sentence with:

· It is/was … who/which/that

The dog’s barking didn’t wake me up, the alarm clock did.

It wasn’t the dog’s barking which/that woke me up, it was the alarm clock.

Note: we use who, which or that to put emphasis on the subject. We normally use that to put emphasis on the object or the adverbial phrase.

· All (that) = the only thing

All (that) he did was call me to say goodbye.

· What

I need a holiday. (object)

What I need is a holiday.

OR A holiday is what I need.

· What … do (to put emphasis on verbs)

Greg updated the files.

What Greg did was (to) update the files.

· Question word + ever (usually shows surprices)

Where ever did you find this old map?

Note:Question words+ ever (except for why) can be written as one word. E.g. Whoever told you …? We also use ever to put emphasis on negative sentences.

Nobody everexplained this to me.

· We use do/does/did + bare infinitive in the present simple, past simple or the imperative to give emphasis.

Stay a little longer.

Do stay a little longer.

 

APPENDIX 11

CONDITIONALS: SUMMARY
Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do

not take 50% and 10% figures too literally. They are just to help you.

 

probability	conditional	Example	time
100%	zero conditional	If you heat ice, it melts.	Any time
50%	first conditional	If it rains, I will stay at home.	future
10%	second conditional	If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.	future
0%	third conditional	If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car	past

First Conditional: real possibility

IF	condition	result
	present simple	WILL + base verb
If	it rains	I will stay at home.

Second Conditional: unreal

possibility or dream

IF	condition	result
	past simple	WOULD + base verb
	If I won the lottery	I would buy a car.