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· A non-defining relative clause adds extra information and is not essential to identify the person, thing, etc. we are talking about.

· We use commas to separate a non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence: My sister Anna, who is a teacher, lives in Madrid.

· We use who for a people and which for things, but we don’t use that.

· We use where for places, when for time and whose for possession: Edinburgh, where I live, is a very lively city.

· We can’t leave out the relative pronoun in non-defining relative clauses.

APPENDIX 3

PASSIVE VOICE

TENSES	INDEFINITE	CONTINOUS	PERFECT
PRESENT	am is + V3 are Usually watches are mended here.     Usually the house is built for 2 years.	am is + being + V3 are My watch is being mended now.	have has + been + V3 My watch has been already mended.
PAST	was were + V3 My watch was mended yesterday.	was were + being + V3 My watch was beingmended when I arrived.	had + been + V3 My watch had beenmended by six o’clock yesterday.   This house had been built before I arrived.
FUTURE	will + be + V3 My watch will be mended tomorrow.     This house will be built next year.		will + have + been + V3 My watch will have been mended by Tuesday.     This house will have been already built by January.

 

We use the passive:

· When the person who does the action is unknown, unimportant, or obvious from the context

· When the action itself is more important than the person who does it, as in news headlines, newspaper articles, formal notices, advertisements, instructions, processes, etc.

The seeds are planted months before the year’s wheat is harvested (process).

· When we want to avoid taking responsibility for an action or when we refer to an unpleasant event and we refer to an unpleasant event and we do not want to say who or what is blame.

The window has been smashed (instead of “You have smashed the window”).

Changing from active into passive:

· The object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence.

· The active verb remains in the same tense but changes into a passive form.

· The subject of the active sentence becomes the agent, and is either introduced with the preposition by or is omitted.

 

	Subject	Verb	Object
ACTIVE	My sister	was driving	the car.
PASSIVE	The car	was being driven	by my sister.
	Subject	Verb	Agent

 

· Only transitive verbs, i.e. verbs that take an object, can be changed into the passive.

Note: some transitive verbs such as have, fit, suit, resemble, etc., cannot be changed into the passive.

· By + agentis used to say who or what carries out an action.

With + instrument/material/ingredientis used to say what the agent used.

The walls were covered with posters.

· The agent can be omitted when the subject of the active sentence is one of the following words: people, one, someone/somebody, they, he, etc.

Somebody locked the front door → The front door was locked.

· The agent is not omitted when it is a specific or important person or when it is essential to the meaning of the sentence.

This novel was written by Leo Tolstoy.

· When we want to find out who or what did something, the passive question from is: who/what…by?

· With verbs which take two objects such as bring, tell, send, show, teach, promise, buy, sell, read, offer, give, lend,we can form two different passive sentences.

· In the passive, the preposition that follows a verb is placed immediately after the verb.

· The verbs hear, help, see and make are followed by the bare infinitive in the active but by the to-infinitive in the passive.

But: hear, see, watch, + ing form (active and passive)

Active: They saw him swimming across the lake.

Passive: He was seen swimming across the lake.

· Let becomes be allowed to in the passive.

Active: He lets me drive his car.

Passive: I am allowed to drive his car.

APPENDIX 4

ARTICLES

 

There are a lot of rules about how we use articles. Here are four rules for using the indefinite articles ‘a’and‘an’:

	We use theindefinite articlesa / an
	1.We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does not know exactly which one we are referring to: Sociological research is usually conducted by a working group. 2.before professions and job titles: a scientist a sociologist a politician a marketing executive 3.We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group: Statistical methods are a useful tool in sociological research. We use a/an with a singular noun to say something about all thingsof that kind: A student has a role that involves patterned interaction with professors and other students (= All students have such role )
The definite article the is the most frequent word in English.
We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knowsexactly what we are referring to. • because there is only one: The Pope is visiting Poland. The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979. This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective: In the simplest terms, a theory is an explanation of the relationship between two or more specific facts. • because there is only one in that place or in those surroundings: Sociologists raise the question of whether we are prisoners of society acting out the roles we are given.• because we have already mentionedit: There is a close connection between sociology and other disciplines such as psychology, economy, anthropology, criminology, political science, and history. Sociology is a broader discipline than the other social sciences.

 

The definite article with names:

We do not normally use the definite article with names: Paris is the capital of France. Iran is in Asia.

But we do use the definite article with:

• countrieswhose names include words like kingdom, states or republic: the United Kingdom; the kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the People’s Republic of China.

• countrieswhich have plural nouns as their names: the Netherlands; the Philippines

• geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers, seas, oceans and canals: the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic; the Atlantic Ocean; the Amazon; the Panama Canal.

• newspapers: The Times; The Washington Post.

• well known buildingsor works of art: the Empire State Buildin ; the Taj Mahal ; the Mona Lisa ; the Sunflowers

• organisations: the United Nations; the Seamen’s Union.

• hotels, pubsand restaurants* : the Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; the King’s Head; the Déjà Vu.

*Note : We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name of the owner, e.g.,Brown’s ; Brown’s Hotel ; Morel’s ; Morel’s Restaurant, etc.

• families: the Obamas; the Jacksons.

APPENDIX 5

CLAUSES

Purpose clauses

You use a purpose clause when you want to state the purpose of the action in the independent clause. The most common type of purpose clause is a to-infinitive clause.

• Sarah went to the computer lab to print out her research report.

In formal writing, in order to and so as to are often used.

• The company conducted a detailed surveyin order to gauge its clients’ views.

In formal writing, you can also introduce a purpose clause with so that or in order that. These finite purpose clauses usually contain a modal.

• Dr Chan adjusted the overhead projector so thatthe students would be able to see the chart more clearly.
• The lecturer finished his lecture five minutes early so that the students could come and ask him questions.

The difference between so and so that is that so that implies that the cause was deliberately done by someone in order to get a specific result.

There are a number of other ways of expressing purpose in English. These are some of the most common ones: with a view to, with the intention of, with the object/aim of, for the purpose of

If you use these phrases, make sure that the verb is in the _ing form.

• The university introduced two new English courses with a view to enhancing students’ proficiency in the language.

Reason clauses

In your written and spoken assignments you will often need to answer the question ‘Why?’. When you want to explain why something happens, you can use a reason clause introduced by the conjunctions because, as or since.

• As she wanted to ractice her spoken English, Carrie regularly took part in the ELC’s Big Mouth Corner.
• Mark joined the English Drama Club because he wanted to improve his intonation.

Don’t use so in sentences beginning with since, as or because. Here is a common mistake:

• Since he was interested in movies, so David joined the PolyU International Film Society.

You can also use the prepositional phrases because of and on account of to express reason.

• We were unable to carry out the experiment on account of a malfunction in the computer.
• We were unable to carry out the experiment because the computer malfunctioned.

As you will see in the Vocabulary section below, there are many other ways of indicating reason and cause in English.

Result clauses

When you want to indicate the result of an action or situation, you can use a result clause. Result clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as so, so... that, or such … that.

There are many other ways of talking about the result of an action or situation. In some situations you may prefer to use and as a result or with the result that.

• The lecture was boring and irrelevant, and as a result some of the students began to fall asleep.
• The lecture was boring and irrelevant,with the result that some of the students began to fall asleep.

As a result can also be used at the beginning of a new sentence.

• The lecture was boring and irrelevant. As a result, some of the students began to fall asleep.

The following words and phrases are used in the same way.

Therefore, Thus, In consequence, Consequently, For this/that reason

Causal relations can be expressed by ing-clauses of result.

• The government increased the duty on wine. As a result, there was a fall in demand.
• The government increased the duty on wine, resulting in a fall in demand.

· When we want to make two points, and emphasise that one of them contrasts with the other, there are a number of different words and expressions that we can use.

· Probably the most common and simplest word to use is the conjunction but. It comes between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

The team was beaten, but Paul scored three goals.

Althoughis also a conjunction, and can come either at the beginning of a sentence, or between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

			Although it was raining, they went on a picnic.
			They went on a picnic although it was raining.

Though can be used in exactly the same way, and is more common in informal speech:

			Though it was raining, they went on a picnic.
			They went on a picnicthough it was raining.

If we useeven though in this way, the word even stresses that what follows is surprising:

Even though he’s almost ninety, he’s entered the marathon.

Though can also be used as an adverb, to meanhowever (see below).

			Frogs, though, are amphibians and not reptiles.
			“Strange place, isn’t it?” “Yes. Very interesting, though.”

Even so also means however (see below), and comes at the beginning of the sentence:

They come from a very rich family. Even so, they’re really mean with their money.

However, nevertheless, mind you, still, yet, and in spite of this can all be used as adverbs to show that something you are saying contrasts with something else.

However and nevertheless emphasise the fact that the second thing that you are saying contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is more formal.

			The children had a lovely day. However, they arrived home very sunburnt.
			The government vowed to reduce inflation. Nevertheless, one year later, the rate has increased by 3 percent.

We use mind you and still to introduce whatever contrasts as an afterthought:

			He’s a horrible man. Mind you, many people like him.
			The weather was awful all week. Still, we had a nice rest.

Yet, still and in spite of this all emphasise that something is surprising, considering what has already been said:

			He’s been an invalid since he was a child and yet has had a brilliant career.
			United were four goals down at halftime, and were still able to win the game.
			He claims that he’s a vegetarian. In spite of this, he does enjoy a bit of ham every now and again.

In spite of can also be used as a preposition. In spite of+ noun is very similar to although + clause (see above):

			He looks very fitin spite ofhis age (=although he’s very old)
			He went to the gym in spite of his broken leg (=although he had a broken leg)

In spite ofcan be followed by an –ing form.

In spite of not being able to swim, she survived for almost an hour in the sea.

We can also use despite in the same way as in spite ofin more formal English:

He was considered for the position despite his lack of experience.

APPENDIX 6

REFERENCE WORDS

 

Words and sentences are related to each other. Sometimes we find it confusing to follow a text because we don’t know whom or what the writer is talking about. This may be because he/she (the writer) has used reference words.

 

What are reference words? These are words we use instead of the names of people, things, or ideas already mentioned in the text.

 

Which words can be used as reference words?