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Нажимая кнопку "Продолжить", я принимаю политику конфиденциальности

The United States is a democracy. But what do Americans mean when they use this word? Abraham Lincoln, one of the best-loved and most respected American presidents, said that the United States had a government «of the people, by the people and for the people». No one has formulated a better way of describing the principles of the American political system as Americans understand it. The Constitution, laws and traditions of the United States give the people the right to determine who will be the leader of their nation, who will make the laws, and what the laws will be. The Constitution guarantees individual freedom to all.

The Constitution sets the basic form of government: it has three branches - legislative, executive and judiciary. Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Congress makes all laws, and each house of Congress has the power to support or reject a bill offered by the other. When they both pass a bill on which they agree, it is sent to the president for his signature. Only after that a bill becomes a law.

The members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years, and one-third of the Senators are elected every two years for six-year terms of office. Each state, regardless of the population, has two senators, while the House of Representatives has more members from more populated states. The president of the USA is elected every four years to a four-year term of office, with no more than two full terms allowed. The President is the chief executive of the United States and also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The judiciary branch is represented by the Supreme Court and federal courts at the national level.

There is one more very important part of the American political scene - the political parties. Today the Unites States has two major political parties: the Democratic party and the Republican party. Both these parties have supporters among a wide variety of Americans. There are other smaller parties in the US, but none of them has enough popular support to win a presidential election.

 

Exercise 4. Read the following statements and decide if they are true or false:

1. Abraham Lincoln was the first president of the USA.

2. The law-making body of the American government is called the Congress.

3. The Congress consists of two chambers.

4. The US President is the head of its military forces.

5. A bill becomes a law only after it is approved by the Senate and the House of Representatives.

6. There is equal number of Senators representing each state in the USA.

7. Presidential elections in the USA are held every five years.

8. The elected President can serve as long as he wins elections.

9. The USA nowadays has a two-party political system.

 

Exercise 5. Make up dialouges about the USA.

Lesson 2

GRAMMAR. Infinitive. Forms. (Grammar Comment §4).

 

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences paying attention to the forms of infinitives.

1. Computers work according to the program to be prepared in advance. If I have any news you will be the first to know. 2. We are awfully glad to have met this foreign delegation. 3. He seems to be working on the computer now. 4. I was glad to have done such a hard work. 5. He’s got a headache. He claims to have been working on the computer all day.

Active Vocabulary

increasingly –  adv все больше и больше;

trend –  п направление, тенденция;

brake –  п тормоз;

within –  prepв, в рамках чего-то;

supersede –  v заменять, смещать; syn replace ;

coupling –  п сцепка; couple –v сцеплять; п пара;

chain –  п цепь;

smart train –  поезд, оснащенный смарт-технологиями; syn . intelli ­ gent; smart card - смарт-карточка (платёжная карточка со встроенным микропроцессором);

profitability –  п прибыльность, рентабельность; profit - п прибыль; v получать прибыль; profit­able- adj прибыльный;

leap –  п прыжок; leap year- високосный год;

establish –  v устанавливать, основывать;

constantly –  ad jпостоянно, все время; constan t- adj постоянный;

update – v обновлять;

protection –  n защита, охрана; protect - v защищать;

be underway –  проходить, совершаться;

throughout –  adv всюду, во всех отношениях; through - prep через, сквозь

visible- adj очевидный, явный;

interoperable – adj эксплуатационносовместимый (интероперабельный)

be aimed at –  быть нацеленным на;

cross - border traffic – движение через границу;

involve- v включать в себя, предвидеть касаться;

implement – v использовать, выполнять;

hardware –  п техническое обеспечение, оборудование; softwarе програмное       обеспечение

flexible – adj гибкий

interface –  п связь; syn link , communication

simulation – n моделирование; simulate - v моделировать; simulator – тренажёр, макет;

create – v творить, создавать;

multiple – adj сложный, многочисленный, разнообразный, многосоставный;

trainee –  практикант, стажер

affect –  v влиять

ever - expanding –  adj постоянно расширяющийся;

concept – п идея, концепция

pay – v платить

foreseeable – adj предсказуемый; foresee -v предвидеть

pursuit – п преследование, погоня

READING

Pre-text discussion.

Have new technologies changed our everyday lives? Give a few ex­amples to support your standpoint. 2. What are the most important (revolutionary, recent) innovations you can remember? 3. What do the abbreviations high tech, hi-fi, R&D mean? 4. How have new technologies changed modem railways?

Text

NEW TECHNOLOGIES ON WORLD RAILWAYS

(1) Nowadays one can hardly find fields in human activity where electronic machines or devices are not used. Traffic control, sorting yard operations, compiling schedules, designing locomotives and many other hard and time-consuming jobs are being increasingly performed by computers.

(2) Perhaps, the most important trend in train control at present is the change of technology. Yesterday’s technology was electro-mechanical; today electronic and computer technology dominates in rail traffic control and safety systems. Modem signalling is one important sphere of new technologies. Railroad signals (like the semaphore signal) are form of communication designed to inform the train crew of track conditions ahead and to instruct it how to operate the train. Traditional signals, which can be recorded, are speed, time, and distance. A number of digital signals such as door opening, brake application, switch positions, lamps, etc, as well as some analogue signals such as current and catenary¹voltage, are now added for recording. Recently the terms like radio-based signalling or telematics² have been added to traditional signalling terminology. We are on the brink of³ a revolution which will transform signalling as we know it within the next decade.

(3) The automation of railway services is leading to computer- integrated railroading, in which radio plays a very important role. On modem railways there is a clear trend towards the so-called railway operation control system (ROC) based on radio transmission. ROC includes traffic safety and train control, which supersedes traditional signalling. It helps to coordinate the operation of high-speed passenger services and slower freight trains on the same tracks, as well as the use of double-track lines in both directions. With the help of ROC, there will soon be virtual or electronic coupling of trains into a chain driving at a high speed. Together with ‘smart’ trains and ‘intelligent’ dispatching and control centres, ROC will form a triangle⁴ for improved profitability for the railways.

(4) A great leap forward in radio-based communications systems is Transmission Based Signalling (TBS). The first systems are now being developed and installed, and undoubtedly TBS will become the preferredsignalling technology for the world’s metro and mainline rail­ways.

TBS has a number of essential advantages over conventional signal­ling- First of all, it eliminates the need for tracks-circuits⁵. Under TBS, trains establish their position through the use of the train equipment. Each train receives a movement authority⁶ based on the speed of the train that is constantly updated by radio. This information is presented to the driver on a, cab display or passed to an Automatic Train Opera­tion (ATO) controller. Safety is also increased due to the use Auto­matic Train Protection (ATP), which is a feature of TBS.

(5) Britain is one of the first countries to adopt TBS. Jubilee Line of London Underground is currently the largest metro project underway in Europe. It needs the most technically advanced and innovative train control and signalling system, which is why the London Underground chose TBS. TBS is also being considered by railways throughout the world, from New York City Transit in the United States to metros in the Far East, and for many of the Trans European Network (TEN) routes throughout Europe.

(6) The second trend, which becomes visible, is increasing standardi­zation. Within Europe, there exist 27 different signalling systems, five different types of electrification, different track and loading gauges, and different operating rules between national railways. It stands to reason⁷, that signalling and train control systems have to be interoper­able to ensure the safe and smooth flow of rail transport. With this aim, the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) has been designed. ERTM consists of European Train Control System (ETCS) and Global Systems for Mobile Communication for Railways (GSM-R). They are all aimed at ‘Europeanizing’ national signalling systems and improving cross-border traffic so that the driver will always receive the same signalling information regardless of which country he is operating at the time. As all major signalling companies are involved in the development of ERTMS, it will soon be a radio-signalling standard for the world. German Rail (DB) became the first railway in Europe to implement GSM-R - the new standard for digital train radio on the Cologne - Frankfurt high-speed line in 2002. Thus, DB is pioneering the technological transition from older analogue networks to the new generation of digital systems.

(7) Another highly-significant project for an interoperable railway system will be a standardized European Driver’s Desk (EUDD) designed for interoperable rail services across borders. The EUDD will improve safety and working conditions by replacing hardware controls with flexible software display functions. The new driver’s desk should also allow the introduction of new technologies, such as the further development of telematics-based control systems and Man-Machine-Interface.

The electronic technique known as simulation creates virtual rail environment. Cab simulators have traditionally been applied only to driver training. The latest generation of multiple simulators can now be networked together to represent an ‘integrated railworld’ which is much more complex than a single train in isolation. Such integrated simulators offer joint training for drivers, train controllers and opera­tions control staff, all interacting in multidisciplinary teams. Using virtual reality theatres, a wider range of training scenarios can be pro­vided. The trainees then can fully understand how their position through the use of the train equipment. Each train receives a movement authority⁶ based on the speed of the train that is constantly updated by radio. This information is presented to the driver on a, cab display or passed to an Automatic Train Opera­tion (ATO) controller. Safety is also increased due to the use Auto­matic Train Protection (ATP), which is a feature of TBS.

(8) Britain is one of the first countries to adopt TBS. Jubilee Line of London Underground is currently the largest metro project underway in Europe. It needs the most technically advanced and innovative train control and signalling system, which is why the London Underground chose TBS. TBS is also being considered by railways throughout the world, from New York City Transit in the United States to metros in the Far East, and for many of the Trans European Network (TEN) routes throughout Europe.

(9) The second trend, which becomes visible, is increasing standardi­zation. Within Europe, there exist 27 different signalling systems, five different types of electrification, different track and loading gauges, and different operating rules between national railways. It stands to reason⁷, that signalling and train control systems have to be interoper­able to ensure the safe and smooth flow of rail transport. With this aim, the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) has been designed. ERTM consists of European Train Control System (ETCS) and Global Systems for Mobile Communication for Railways (GSM-R). They are all aimed at ‘Europeanizing’ national signalling systems and improving cross-border traffic so that the driver will always receive the same signalling information regardless of which country he is operating at the time. As all major signalling companies are involved in the development of ERTMS, it will soon be a radio-signalling standard for the world. German Rail (DB) became the first railway in Europe to implement GSM-R - the new standard for digital train radio on the Cologne - Frankfurt high-speed line in 2002. Thus, DB is pioneering the technological transition from older analogue networks to the new generation of digital systems.

(10) Another highly-significant project for an interoperable railway system will be a standardized European Driver’s Desk (EUDD) designed for interoperable rail services across borders. The EUDD will improve safety and working conditions by replacing hardware controls with flexible software display functions. The new driver’s desk should also allow the introduction of new technologies, such as the further development of telematics-based control systems and Man-Machine-Interface.

(11) The electronic technique known as simulation creates virtual rail environment. Cab simulators have traditionally been applied only to driver training. The latest generation of multiple simulators can now be networked together to represent an ‘integrated railworld’ which is much more complex than a single train in isolation. Such integrated simulators offer joint training for drivers, train controllers and opera­tions control staff, all interacting in multidisciplinary teams. Using virtual reality theatres, a wider range of training scenarios can be pro­vided. The trainees then can fully understand how their actions affect each other, which, in effect, helps to reduce human error in critical situations.

(12) New developments in information technology and ever-expanding Internet have changed the world and the way of presenting passenger information. CyberRail is a new multi-media concept providing real­time information for passengers throughout their journey from door-to-door, taking into account every mode of transport. Passengers, railway operators and other railway companies can freely transmit, collect, and process the information. Passengers receive personalized travel plans, and railway operators can offer services according to de­mand.

Electronic smart card ticketing and booking tickets on the internet have become a regular thing for passengers. More and more countriesare adopting smart cards with embedded chip instead of paper-basedticketing systems. Smart cards hold much more information than a magnetic stripe, and can be also used outside the mass transit systems for which they were designed, for instance, as ‘electronic purses’. From contactless cards reloaded via the Internet to virtual tickets onmobile phones, today’s technology has no limits.

It is safe to say that investment in rail research is paid many times over. New technologies will transform railways in the foreseeable future. In this information-intensive age, the modernization of signaling and telecommunications is even more important than the pursuit of higher train speeds. Future railway technologies have to be highly effective interoperable, safe, environmentally friendly and allow for rapid innovation in the railway system.

¹catenary - контактный провод

²telematics -телематика, интегрированные системы,

³we are on the brink of - мы на пороге, на грани

⁴triangle- треугольник

⁵track circuit - рельсовая цепь

⁶ a movement authorit -  путевые инструкции

⁷it stands to reason - само собой разумеется