2 a) Work in pairs. Study standards frequently asked questions. Think of the possible answers.

1. Are standards only for products?

2. Will I have to pay more when a standard is upgraded?

3. How much time and effort will it take to introduce a standard to my business?

4. Do standards inhibit innovation?

5. Can I have a say in the content of standards?

b) Match the answers to the questions.

A.All that is necessary is to purchase the most appropriate standard, then to implement it in all relevant areas of operation. For added authority, compliance can then be independently verified. In some cases, this stage may be mandatory.

B.Anyone who is affected by a standard can have a say in its content. Representatives from government, society at large and businesses of all sizes determine the contents of standards.

C. Standards are able to promote innovation by defining performance without compromising intellectual property. Where interoperability is a key factor, standards serve to promote knowledge sharing and network benefits, enabling greater innovation.

D. There are a great many standards that ensure the quality, compatibility and safety of vast selection of manufactured goods. However, there are also many standards that have a similarly positive influence on service provision and business management.

E. Standards are sometimes revised to reflect new practices, which might mean investing to comply with the latest version. Where compliance is voluntary, some users decide that an older version of a standard is still sufficient for their business needs, but it is always advisable to invest in the most up-to date version.

DISCUSSION POINTS

Using the words and expressions in the box discuss the questions below:

Are standards only relevant to large businesses? Can start-ups benefit from these just as much as established firms?

Do businesses really need standards if they have the best solution already?

READING

1 Read the text about the development of standards and answer the following questions:

What are the main principles of standard development?

What stages are involved in standards development?

Are standards reviewed? Why?

HOW ARE ISO STANDARDS DEVELOPED?

ISO standards are developed according to the following principles.

Consensus

The views of all interests are taken into account: manufacturers, vendors and users, consumer groups, testing laboratories, governments, engineering professions and research organizations.

Industry wide

Global solutions to satisfy industries and customers worldwide.

Voluntary

International standardization is market driven and therefore based on voluntary involvement of all interests in the market-place.

There are three main phases in the ISO standards development process as follows.

The need for a standard is usually expressed by an industry sector, which communicates this need to a national member body. The latter proposes the new work item to ISO as a whole. Once the need for an International Standard has been recognized and formally agreed, the first phase involves definition of the technical scope of the future standard. This phase is usually carried out in working groups which comprise technical experts from countries interested in the subject matter.

Once agreement has been reached on which technical aspects are to be covered in the standard, a second phase is entered during which countries negotiate the detailed specifications within the standard. This is the consensus-building phase.

The final phase comprises the formal approval of the resulting draft International Standard (the acceptance criteria stipulate approval by two-thirds of the ISO members that have participated actively in the standards development process, and approval by 75% of all members that vote), following which the agreed text is published as an ISO International Standard.

It is also possible to publish interim documents at different stages in the standardization process.

Most standards require periodic revision. Several factors combine to render a standard out of date: technological evolution, new methods and materials, new quality and safety requirements. To take account of these factors, ISO has established the general rule that all ISO standards should be reviewed at intervals of not more than five years. On occasion, it is necessary to revise a standard earlier.

To date, ISO's work has resulted in over 16 000 International Standards, representing more than 620 000 pages in English and French (terminology is often provided in other languages as well).

A list of all ISO standards appears in the ISO Catalogue.