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В 1987 г., когда программа переделки советского государства вступила в решающую стадию, М.С.Горбачев дал определение этой программы: "Перестройка - многозначное, чрезвычайно емкое слово. Но если из многих его возможных синонимов выбрать ключевой, ближе всего выражающий саму его суть, то можно сказать так: перестройка - это революция". Таким образом, высшее руководство КПСС видело задачу не в постепенном реформировании, а в изменении через слом, с разрывом непрерывности.
В России и за рубежом уже накоплен большой исследовательский материал о перестройке, и хотя в нем есть много "белых пятен", некоторые общие выводы уже прояснились. С точки зрения истории государства они таковы.
- Перестройка относится к категории "революций сверху". В них назревающий кризис легитимности государства, грозящий перераспределением власти и богатства, разрешается действиями правящей прослойки через государственный аппарат. В таких революциях крайним случаем является "самосвержение" правящего режима через организацию "народного восстания". Самым блестящим примером стало самосвержение режима Чаушеску в Румынии в 1989 г.
- Перестройка завершилась глубокими изменениями политической системы, общественно-экономического строя, национальных отношений, образа жизни и культуры всех граждан и народов СССР. Она привела к кардинальному изменению геополитической структуры мира и породила мировые процессы, далекие от завершения.
- Перестройка была частью мирового конфликта - холодной войны. В ее развитии и использовании результатов зарубежные политические силы играли активную и важную роль. Завершение перестройки ликвидацией Варшавского договора и СЭВ, затем роспуском СССР рассматривается на Западе как поражение СССР в холодной войне.
- Движущей силой перестройки стал необычный союз следующих социокультурных групп: часть партийно-государственной номенклатуры, стремящаяся преодолеть назревающий кризис легитимности с сохранением своего положения; часть интеллигенции, проникнутая либеральной и западнической утопией; криминальные слои, связанные с "теневой” экономикой.
19. Translate the following questions and give the answers in English.
1. Когда программа переделки советского государства вступила в решающую стадию?
2. Какое определение этой программы дал М.С.Горбачев?
3. Перестройку исследовали только в России?
4. Что значит «революция сверху»?
5. Что является крайним случаем в таких революциях?
6. Чем завершилась перестройка?
7. К чему она привела?
8. Частью чего была перестройка?
9. Как рассматривается завершение перестройки на Западе?
10. Что стало движущей силой перестройки?
20. Give the summary of the text in English.
Unit 5
Leadership
1. Before you read answer the following questions.
1. What is a leader?
2. Who is one?
3. Could anybody become one?
2. Read and translate the text.
Understanding Leadership
Leadership has long been a topic of interest in complex civilizations, dating back at least to the beginning of written knowledge. For example, in The Republic, Plato distinguished between leaders as men of “bronze”. Leadership issues similar to those that people talk about today such as charisma, leadership as heroic action, the nature of managerial work, organizational equilibrium versus conflict, how to lead through meaning and symbolism, manipulating the truth, and follower participation can be found in Plato’s discourse.
The idea of developing leadership capability also stems from antiquity. Extensive research into ancient Rome, Greece and Troy reveals that many leaders were destined by birth for leadership, and were prepared for this role through their education and experience. Preparing the Pharaohs for leadership was also given considerable thought and attention, while the famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle, was entrusted with the education of Alexander the Great, the future leader of an empire.
Despite literally millennia of interest in the practice and development of leadership the concept remains elusive and enigmatic. This is probably because people discussing leadership are likely to have different concepts in mind, making communication about leadership rather difficult. Consider which of these examples indicate leadership:
- Julius Caezar, growing up among poor immigrants in the tenement blocks of Rome where mutual learning and exchange of ideas take place.
- Winston Churchill, giving the order to bomb Dresden, after the Second World War had officially ended.
- The US Supreme Court voting 5-4 to give the 2000 presidency to George W. Bush, thereby determining the outcome of the Gore-Bush selection.
- Mother Teresa setting up and running her order to treat the poor in India.
- A teacher, mentor or coach in action.
Some people may feel that some of these examples stretch the idea of leadership a bit far, while others would argue that despite their differences, the above instances all reflect leadership.
Understanding leadership is challenging for several reasons:
1. There is no agreed definition of leadership or what the concept should embrace. When discussing leadership some people include:
- what others would term “management”,
- reference to the past, present or future,
- dealing with change or managing stability,
- a figurehead or symbol,
- a process of influence.
2. Most ideas about leadership have been internationally broken down into smaller components so that scholars can conduct publishable research into them. As a result, much of the work on leadership is currently too simple to reflect the full richness and complexity that practitioners face on the job.
3. Theories and research into leadership are far from complete. Individual scholars tend to focus on particular aspects of leadership, with few attempting to build consistent theories.
4. The ideas underlying concepts of leadership have changed over the course of history, paralleling many social and other changes. Since the end of the twentieth century, society has been undergoing change at an almost breathtaking pace. Some of these changes are affecting leadership concepts and practices.
3. Answer the questions.
1. What leadership issues can be found in Plato’s discourse?
2. Were the people destined by birth for leadership or prepared for it through education? Give examples.
3. Why does the concept of leadership remain elusive and enigmatic?
4. Which of the examples above reflect the idea of leadership better than the others? Explain why.
5. What reasons are given to explain why understanding leadership is challengable?
6. Can you give any reasons to present evidence of complexity of this phenomenon?
7. Why are there few consistent theories of leadership?
8. Don’t you think that the concept of leadership is outmoded?
9. Why is it necessary to rethink of paradigms of leadership both in theory and in practice?
10. Do you find the idea of a search for the definition of leadership illusory? Why?
4. Match the words of the left with the definition on the right.
1. charisma a) anything puzzling or unpredictable
2. issue b) verbal communication
3. equilibrium c) the quality of being ancient
4. discourse d) question, topic
5. antiquity e) trainer, tutor
6. enigma f) a monastic society or fraternity
7. outcome g) a personal aura endowing its possessor with the
capacity for inspiring popular entusiasm
8. order h) a person who is nominally the head of a society or
company but has no real authority
9. coach i) balance
10. figurehead j) the result, the consequence
5. Find the synonyms of the following words in the text.
1. example 6. include (comprise)
2. take part 7. show
3. result from 8. broaden
4. be at the basis 9. generally
5. notion 10. not clear
6. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.
1. Мысль о том, что лидерские способности можно развивать, появилась во времена античности.
2. Интерес к проблемам лидерства не исчезает уже в течение нескольких тысячелетий.
3. К сожалению, нельзя считать до конца разгаданной тайну великих вождей.
4. Мнения людей резко расходятся по вопросам лидерства.
5. Считается, что харизма это врожденный дар.
7. Look through the text and suggest a headline.
Understanding how the leadership paradigms relate to national culture is critical, because many organizations operate in different parts of the world and encounter cross-national and regional cultures within their workforce, customers or governmental influences. Further, by fostering diversity, organizations position themselves to adapt to change. At least some of their diverse members may have the know-how, skills, insights, values or other capacities needed to succeed under changed conditions.
Some scholars identify four broad cultural dimensions from a management perspective:
1. Power distance inequality. Power distance deals directly with people’s expectations of and relationships to, authority. In particular, it refers to the extent to which a culture accepts unequal distribution of power. In low power distance inequality cultures, leader follower relationships are theoretically close and less formal. In high power distance inequality culture, these relations are more distant, hierarchilly ordered and reserved.
2. Uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people in a culture prefer certainty and predictability, finding ambiguity stressful. In high uncertainty avoidance cultures, members prefer rules and stable jobs with long-term employers. This compares with the greater risk-taking and tolerance of organizational ambiguity and change found in low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Leaders in high uncertainty avoidance cultures would be expected to find ways of exerting and keeping control (certainty) within their work units.
3. Collectivism/individualism. Collectivism/individualism refers to the extent to which a culture focuses on individual identity and personal choice, as opposed to valuing a strong collective identity. Individualistic cultures emphasize individual goals, whereas the collective culture emphasizes the welfare of the “ingroup”. One could predict, for example, that managers from individualistic cultures would be perceived by their subordinates as promoting team building more than managers from collectivistic cultures, whose subordinates are probably already group-oriented.
4. Masculinity/femininity. Maskulinity/femininity classifies cultures into those in which assertiveness, challenge and ambition are valued (masculine cultures), and others where greater emphasis is placed on cooperation and good working relationships (feminine cultures).
Relating these four dimensions to specific leadership situations can be very complex. In Japan, where power distance is high, the culture emphasizes conformity, consensus and collectivity at the expense of individual goals. The result is that the Japanese collectivist culture supports participative management, in spite of high power distance. By contrast, the cultural values can suggest that participative management is likely to be more difficult to introduce in individualistic cultures with high power distance, such as in France. A traditional French leader possesses great authority and is expected to be very knowledgeable, having attended elite schools. Consulting subordinates and evidence of poor leadership ability. More egalitarian countries like the US and Australia, being relatively low in power distance, would allow for follower participation. However, the US and Australia are highly individualistic cultures, which could pose an obstacle to working in a team environment.
8. Find the key words in each paragraph of the text and translate them into Russian.
9. Find the English equivalents of the following words.
1. приспосабливаться к переменам,
2. культурное измерение,
3. с точки зрения управленческого подхода,
4. распределение власти,
5. культура, в которой принято избегать неясности и неопределенности,
6. делать упор на индивидуальные цели,
7. восприниматься подчиненными,
8. ценить решительность и честолюбие,
9. модель управления, которая допускает участие в руководстве всех сотрудников,
10. создавать помехи (препятствия).
10. Give the summary of the text in Russian using the key words and work combinations from the exercises 8 and 9.
11. Read the following text.
Sustainability of overwork
Work occupies a major portion of people’s lives in many parts of the world. A five-year UK study found that over 42 per cent of managers reported always working beyond their contract hours, with 78 per cent of them always working more than a 40-hour week. The more senior the manager, the greater the number of hours worked, with 25 per cent of CEOs and Managing Directors working over 60 hours per week. The study found that weekend and evening work was the norm for many managers. Not only do long working hours endanger family life and relationships with partners and children, but managers reported adverse effects on health (59 per cent), morale (56 per cent), and productivity (53 per cent). About 20 per cent of managers said that working long hours is unacceptable, but the pressure of work in modern organizations appears to be driving people to work excessively long hours.
Long hours are not just a phenomenon for managers. In Australia, long working hours are impacting employees as well. Some 71 per cent of employees and 75 per cent of owner managers usually work more than 35 hours a week in their main job, and similar proportions of employees and owner managers (22 per cent) worked between 41 and 50 hours a week. Approximately 11 per cent of employees worked more than 50 hours a week, as did 36 per cent of managers. Just over 60 per cent of employees said they had done some work on weekends or at night in the previous four weeks.
About 30 per cent of people working over 50 hours per week said that they would prefer to work shorter hours. Much of this extra work is not compensated. Around 21 per cent of employees reported that they had worked extra hours in the previous four weeks but had not been compensated in the same period of time at all, whether by pay, time off in lieu of the extra hours worked, through their work agreement or salary package, or by any other type of benefit.
Even if workers do continue to accept the long hours, can human beings sustain this pressure? Is work meaningful enough to occupy the central place in so many employees’ lives?
12. Combine the following sentences to make one complete statement. Make any changes you think necessary, but do not change the sense of the original. Refer to the passage when you have finished the exercise.
Around 21 per cent of employees had worked extra hours in the previous four weeks. They had not been compensated in the same period of time at all. They had not been compensated by pay, time off in lieu of the extra hours (paragraph 3).
13. Find in the text: a) the + comparative + the, b) conditional introduced by “even if”, c) Inversion, d) Absolute Participle Construction. Analyse them and suggest different ways of their translation.
14. Translate the text into Russian in writing.
15. Translate the following words.
1. lead (v), lead (n) lead-in, leader, leadership;
2. perfect (adj.), perfect (v.), perfection, perfective;
3. achieve, achievement, achievable;
4. promote, promotion, promoter;
5. spontaneity, spontaneous, spontaneously;
6. regulate, regulation, regulatory, regulator, regular,regularity;
7. inspire, inspiration, inspirer;
8. perform, performer, performance;
9. authority, authoritarian;
10. combine, combination;
16. Match the Russian word combinations on the left with the English equivalents on the right.
1. жизнедеятельность a) working relations
2. содержание деятельности b) to achieve group goals
3. трудовые отношения c) with maximum effect
4. с максимальным эффектом d) vital activity
5. ситуативный лидер e) to promote to a leader
6. лидерский стиль f) to appoint a leader
7. выполнить программу g) activity content
8. достигать групповых целей h) situational leader
9. назначить лидера i) implement the programme
10. выдвинуть лидера g) leadership mode
17. Translate the following sentences into English (using pronoun “one”).
1. Нужно искать новые формы интеграции для достижения групповых целей с наибольшим эффектом.
2. Нельзя забывать, что стили лидерства можно менять в зависимости от ситуации.
3. Прежде чем выдвинуть этого человека на этот пост следует внимательно подумать.
4. Нельзя согласиться, что авторитарный стиль руководства является наилучшим (оптимальным) во всех случаях.
5. Под ситуативным лидером понимают такого, кто способен проявить себя в определенной ситуации.
18. Translate the text in writing.
Типы лидерства
Лидерство представляет собой один из наиболее значимых факторов группой интеграции. За последнее время интерес к проблеме лидерства значительно вырос. Интерес к этим вопросам объясняется необходимостью совершенствования регулирования социальных процессов и возросшей ролью науки в организации трудовых отношений.
Под лидерством понимают процесс организации и управления социальной группой. Данный процесс способствует достижению групповых целей с наибольшим эффектом.
В характеристике самого понятия лидера нужно подчеркнуть следующие черты: во-первых, лидер не назначается и выдвигается группой на пост, а спонтанно занимает лидерскую позицию, во-вторых, лидер выдвигается всегда в условиях значимой для жизнедеятельности группы ситуации.
Можно говорить о 3 следующих ступенях дифференциации лидерства:
1. по содержанию деятельности:
a) лидер-вдохновитель, предлагающий программу поведения,
b) лидер-исполнитель, организующий выполнение уже разработанной программы,
c) лидер, являющийся одновременно, как вдохновителем, так и организатором;
2. по стилю руководства:
a) авторитарный,
b) демократический,
c) совмещающий в себе элементы того и другого стиля,
3. по характеру деятельности:
a) универсальный, то есть постоянно проявляющий свои качества лидера,
b) ситуативный, то есть проявляющий качества лидера лишь в определенной, специализированной ситуации.
19. Translate the following questions and give the answers in English.
1. Чем можно объяснить возросший интерес к проблемам лидерства?
2. Что обычно понимают под лидерством?
3. Кто выдвигает лидера?
4. В каких условиях, как правило, выдвигается лидер в группе?
5. Чем лидер-вдохновитель отличается от лидера-исполнителя?
6. Возможно ли, чтобы один человек сочетал в себе черты вдохновителя и исполнителя?
7. Считаете ли вы, что демократический стиль руководства является наиболее оптимальным во всех ситуациях?
8. Хотели бы вы работать в организации с авторитарным стилем руководства?
9. Что значит понятие «универсальный лидер»?
10. Можете ли вы привести примеры ситуаций, в условиях которых выдвинулись известные вам лидеры и руководители?
20. Give the summary of the text in English.
Unit 6
Culture
1. Before you read answer the questions.
1. What role does culture play in the life of people?
2. What do you think of the terms “high culture” and “low culture”?
3. Is it necessary for different nations to have their own cultural identities? Why? Why not?
2. Read and translate the text.
Understanding culture
The word “culture” generally refers to patterns of human activity and to the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. In general, the term culture denotes the whole product of an individual, group or society of intelligent beings. It includes technology, art, science, as well as moral systems and the characteristic behaviors and habits of the selected intelligent entities. In particular, it has specific more detailed meanings in different domains of human activities. Anthropologists most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences symbolically. This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, primatologists have identified aspects of culture among humankind's closest relatives in the animal kingdom. It can be also said that culture is the way people live in accordance to beliefs, language, history, or the way they dress. People are categorized by themselves and by others along a variety of dimensions: according to race – primarily by skin colour and other physical characteristics; according to social class – by the amount of money they earn and by the place they live in and work at; and according to ethnicity – by their national origin or ancestry, and by their own feelings of group membership.
A common way of understanding culture is to see it as consisting of four elements that are passed on from generation to generation by learning alone, these elements being values, norms, institutions and artifacts.
In dealing with immigrant groups and their cultures, there are essentially four approaches: monoculturalism, leikultur (core culture), Melting Pot and multiculturalism. In some European states, culture is very closely linked to nationalism, thus government policy is to assimilate immigrants, although recent increases in migration have led many European states to experiment with forms of multiculturalism. Leitkultur (core culture) is a model developed in Germany. The idea is that minorities can have an identity of their own, but they should at least support the core concepts of the culture on which the society is based. In the United States, the traditional view has been one of a melting pot where all the immigrant cultures are mixed and amalgamated without state intervention. Multiculturalism is a policy according to which immigrants and others should preserve their cultures with the different cultures interacting peacefully within one nation. The way nation states treat immigrant cultures rarely falls neatly into one or another of the above approaches. The degree of difference with the host culture (i.e., "foreignness"), the number of immigrants, attitudes of the resident population, the type of government policies that are enacted and the effectiveness of those policies all make it difficult to generalize about the effects. Similarly with other subcultures within a society, attitudes of the mainstream population and communications between various cultural groups play a major role in determining outcomes.
The study of cultures within a society is complex and research must take into account a myriad of variables. Values comprise ideas about what in life seems important. They guide the rest of the culture. Norms consist of expectations of how people will behave. Each culture has methods, called sanctions, of enforcing its norms. Sanctions vary with the importance of the norm; norms that a society enforces formally have the status of laws. Institutions are the structures of a society within which values and norms are transmitted. Artifacts – things, or aspects of material culture – derive from a culture's values and norms. Julian Huxley gives a slightly different division, into inter-related "mentifacts", "sociofacts" and "artifacts", for ideological, sociological, and technological subsystems respectively. Socialization, in Huxley's view, depends on the belief subsystem. The sociological subsystem governs interaction between people. Material objects and their use make up the technological subsystem. As a rule, archaeologists focus on material culture, whereas cultural anthropologists focus on symbolic culture, although ultimately both groups maintain interests in the relationships between these two dimensions. Moreover, anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to consumption goods, but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded.
3. Answer the questions.
1. What does culture generally refer to?
2. What do different definitions of “culture” reflect?
3. What is denoted by the term “culture”?
4. What kind of capacity is a defining feature of the humans?
5. How are people categorized?
6. How many elements does culture consist of?
7. What are they?
8. Does Julian Huxley give the same division?
9. In what way do archaeologists and cultural anthropologists differ from each other?
10. In what way are they similar?
4. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right.
1. significance a) (real) meaning, importance
2. definition b) to appraise, assess
3. criterion c) expert in the study of ancient things, especially remains of
prehistoric times
4. to evaluate d) the expression of thoughts and feelings in words
5. being e) a standard of judgment
6. anthropologist f) word used to express definite concept especially in branch of
study
7. archaeologist g) a human creature
8. race h) expert in the science of man, of the beginnings, development,
customs and beliefs of mankind
9. term i) statement of precise meaning of a term
10.language j) a group of human beings descended from the same original
stock and having common characteristics
5. Find antonyms of the following words in the text.
1. idleness 6. spend
2. similar 7. trivial
3. exclude 8. misinterpret
4. general 9. practical
5. spiritual 10.in particular
6. Translate the sentences from Russian into English.
1. Слово «культура», по-видимому, означает состояние духа, облагороженного просвещением.
2. Вопреки распространенному предрассудку, не философы, а представители конкретных гуманитарных дисциплин поставили вопрос о культуре как относительно самостоятельном социальном явлении.
3. Под культурой часто понимают то, что человек привносит как в окружающую среду, так и в развитие своего естественного состояния, и посредством чего он достигает своего собственного усовершенствования.
4. Функции культуры социальны, то есть обеспечивают именно коллективный характер жизнедеятельности людей, а также определяют почти все формы индивидуальной деятельности человека в силу его связанности с социальным окружением.
5. Наиболее общей и универсальной функцией культуры следует признать обеспечение социальной интеграции людей.
7. Look through the text and suggest a headline.
Cultural studies developed in the late 20th century, in part through the articulation of sociology and other academic disciplines such as literary criticism. This movement aimed to focus on the analysis of subcultures in capitalist societies. Following the non-anthropological tradition, cultural studies generally focus on the study of consumption goods (such as fashion, art, and literature). Because the 18th- and 19th-century distinction between "high" and "low" culture seems inappropriate to apply to the mass-produced and mass-marketed consumption goods which cultural studies analyse, these scholars refer instead to "popular culture". Today, some anthropologists have joined the project of cultural studies. Most, however, reject the identification of culture with consumption goods. Furthermore, many now reject the notion of culture as bounded, and consequently reject the notion of subculture. Instead, they see culture as a complex web of shifting patterns that link people in different locales and that link social formations of different scales. According to this view, any group can construct its own cultural identity. Currently, a debate is under way regarding whether or not culture can actually change fundamental human cognition. Researchers are divided on the question.
Cultures, by predisposition, both embrace and resist change, depending on culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One gender might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in western cultures. Thus there are both dynamic influences that encourage acceptance of new things, and conservative forces that resist change. Three kinds of influence cause both change and resistance to it: forces at work within a society, contact between societies, changes in the natural environment.
Cultural change can come about due to the environment, to inventions (and other internal influences), and to contact with other cultures. For example, the end of the last ice age helped lead to the invention of agriculture, which in its turn brought about many cultural innovations.In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, hamburgers, mundane in the United States, seemed exotic when introduced into China. "Stimulus diffusion" refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention in another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.
"Acculturation" has different meanings, but in this context refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such has happened to certain Native American tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation.
Cultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period", driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. The world's population now doubles in less than 40 years.
Culture change is complex and has far-ranging effects. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that a holistic approach to the study of cultures and their environments is needed to understand all of the various aspects of change. Human existence may best be looked at as a "multifaceted whole." Only from this vantage can one grasp the realities of culture change.
8. Find the key-words in each paragraph of the text and translate them into Russian.
9. Find the English equivalents of the following word combinations in the text and translate the sentences with them into Russian in writing.
1. товары потребления
2. различие между «высокой» и «низкой» культурой
3. принять участие (присоединиться к) в проекте
4. отвергнуть отождествление культуры с
5. в соответствии с этим мнением
6. идет дискуссия
7. сопротивляться изменению
8. в зависимости от
9. принимать новые идеи
10. расширение международной торговли
10. Give the summary of the text in Russian, using the key-words and word-combinations from exercises 8 and 9.
11. Read the following text.
Culture as worldview
1. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements – such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire – developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "worldview." In this mode of thought, a distinct and incommensurable world view characterizes each ethnic group. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures. By the late 19th century, anthropologists had adopted and adapted the term culture to a broader definition that they could apply to a wider variety of societies. Attentive to the theory of evolution, they assumed that all human beings evolved equally, and that the fact that all humans have cultures must in some way result from human evolution. They also showed some reluctance to see biological evolution to explain differences between specific cultures – an approach that either exemplified a form of, or segment of society vis a vis other segments and the society as a whole, they often reveal processes of domination and resistance.
2. In the 1950s, subcultures – groups with distinctive characteristics within a larger culture – began to be the subject of study by sociologists. Large societies often have subcultures, or groups of people with distinct sets of behavior and beliefs that differentiate them from a larger culture of which they are a part. The subculture may be distinctive because of the age of its members, or by their race, ethnicity, class or gender. The qualities that determine a subculture as distinct may be aesthetic, religious, occupational, political, sexual or a combination of these factors. The 20th century also saw the popularization of the idea of corporate culture – distinct and malleable within the context of an employing organization or a workplace.
12. Combine the following sentences to make one complete statement. Make any changes you think necessary, but do not change the sense of the original. Refer to the passage when you have finished the exercise.
Large societies often have subcultures. Subcultures are groups of people. These groups of people have distinct sets of behaviour and beliefs. The sets of behaviour and beliefs are a part of a larger culture. The sets of behaviour and beliefs differentiate subcultures from a larger culture. (paragraph 2)
13. Find sentences with a) the word “that” (“those”); b) subordinate clauses; c) infinitive. Analyse them and suggest different ways of their translation.
14. Translate the text in writing.
15. Before reading the text translate the following words into Russian.
1. concept; conception; conceptive; conceptual; conceptualism; conceptualization; conceptualize
2. fundamental; found; foundation; founder
3. sensible; sense; sensibility; sensitive; sensitivity; senseless
4. cult; cultism; cultivable; cultivate; cultivation; cultivator; cultural; culturalize; culture; culturology
5. meaning; mean; meaningful; meaningless; mean; meanness; means
6. formation; form; formal; formalism; formalize; formality; formally
7. necessary; necessarily; necessitate; necessity
8. spiritual; spirit; spiritless; spiritism
9. ability; able; able-bodied; able-minded
10. educate; education; educator; educational; educationalist; educationally; educative
16. Match word combinations on the left with their English equivalents on the right.
1. несмотря на то, что… a) to date back to
2. дело в том, что… b) by virtue of the same regularity
3. не только …, но и … c) common sense
4. в силу все той же закономерности d) not only … but also
5. согласно которой … e) as
6. восходить к f) the point is that
7. именно … g) thus
8. здравый смысл h) in spite of the fact that
9. в качестве … i) it is … that
10.таким образом j) according to which
17. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Спор о культуре не завершен, и нельзя считать его бесполезным.
2. Одним из промежуточных результатов спора о культуре является минимизация числа подходов к определению такой категории как культура.
3. Общество, как полагают, делится с личностью своим культурным наследием и модифицирует ее реакцию в процессе приспособления к групповой модели.
4. Именно на почве немецкого Просвещения категории «культура» суждено было сыграть важную теоретическую роль.
5. Структура культуры включает в себя как духовную культуру, так и материальную, которые сосуществуют между собой и составляют единое целое.
18. Translate the text into English.
Сущность культуры
Несмотря на то, что понятие «культура» – основополагающее для теории культуры, определить его не просто. Дело в том, что от этого определения слишком многое зависит не только в культурологии, но и далеко за пределами этой области. Хотя история слова «культура» изучена довольно тщательно, в ней все еще остаются непонятые моменты - в силу все той же методологической закономерности, согласно которой лишь теоретический взгляд придает осмысленный вид истории. Хорошо известно, что слово «культура» восходит к латинскому cultio – возделывание, обработка, как и слово «культ», происходящее из того же источника. Этимологически в латыни более древним источником слова «культура» считается глагол colere в первоначальном значении «возделывать», «обрабатывать» и лишь в позднейшем – «почитать», «поклоняться». Уже в античности слово приобрело широкое хождение, сохранив, разумеется, как и все понятия на первом этапе становления науки, свой метафорический оттенок. Цицерон говорил о необходимости культуры и считал таковой философию. Именно в этой метафоре для современного читателя содержится огромный смысл – источник последующего появления того, что получило название философии культуры.
Понятие «культура» в самом прямом смысле означает развитие или результат развития некоторых духовных или телесных способностей при помощи соответствующих упражнений. В более общем смысле – это черта личности, возникшая вследствие обучения, воспитания в области вкуса, здравого смысла и критичности суждений; культурой нередко называют и просто воспитанность. В этом смысле часто говорят также об общей культуре. Реже используют слово «культура» в качестве синонима слова «цивилизация». У слова «культура» в этом употреблении всегда позитивный смысл, например, культура труда, отдыха, духовная, политическая культура и т.д. Таким образом слово используется все шире, начиная с конца XVII века, сделавшись к XVIII веку более или менее обычным в массовом словоупотреблении.
19. Translate the following questions into English and give answers to them in English.
1. Почему сложно дать определение понятию «культура»?
2. К какому понятию восходит слово «культура»?
3. Какие значения у глагола corele?
4. Когда это слово приобрело более широкое употребление?
5. Кто говорил о необходимости культуры?
6. Какой смысл содержится в метафоре Цицерона?
7. Что означает понятие «культура» в самом прямом смысле?
8. Что оно означает в более общем смысле?
9. Почему слово «культура» употребляют в значении «воспитанность» и «цивилизация»?
10. Позитивный или негативный смысл у слова «культура в этом употреблении?
20. Give the summary of the text in English.
Unit 7
Mass media
1. Before you read answer the following questions.
1. People say that journalism is the forth power. Do you agree? Why? (Why not?)
2. How important do you think is the role played by public relations in the society?
3. Is the influence of mass media on the society positive, negative or both? Give your reasons.
2. Read and translate the text.
Journalism
Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying, and presenting information regarding current events, trends, issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists. News-oriented journalism is sometimes described as the "first rough draft of history" (attributed to Phil Graham), because journalists often record important events, producing news articles on short deadlines. While under pressure to be first with their stories, news media organizations usually edit and proofread their reports prior to publication, adhering to each organization's standards of accuracy, quality and style. Many news organizations claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to the public, while media critics have raised questions about holding the press itself accountable.
Public relations is the art and science of managing communication between an organization and its key publics to build, manage and sustain its positive image. Corporations use marketing public relations (MPR) to convey information about the products they manufacture or services they provide to potential customers to support their direct sales efforts. Typically, they support sales in the short and long term, establishing and burnishing the corporation's branding for a strong, ongoing market.
Publishing is the industry concerned with the production or information the activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books and newspapers. With the advent of digital information system and the Internet, the scope of publishing has expanded to include websites, blogs, and the like.
As a business, publishing includes the development, marketing, production, and distribution of newspapers, magazines, books, literary works, musical works, software, other works dealing with information.
Corporations also use public relations as a vehicle to reach legislators and other politicians, seeking favorable tax, regulatory, and other treatment, and they may use public relations to portray themselves as enlightened employers, in support of human-resources recruiting programs.
Non-profit organizations, including schools and universities, hospitals, and human and social service agencies, use public relations in support of awareness programs, fund-raising programs, staff recruiting, and to increase patronage of their services. Politicians use public relations to attract votes and raise money, and, when successful at the ballot box, to promote and defend their service in office, with an eye to the next election or, at career’s end, to their legacy.
This rapid growth of instantaneous, decentralized communication is often deemed likely to change mass media and its relationship to society. "Cross-media" means the idea of distributing the same message through different media channels. A similar idea is expressed in the news industry as "convergence". Many authors understand cross-media publishing to be the ability to publish in both print and on the web without manual conversion effort. An increasing number of wireless devices with mutually incompatible data and screen formats make it even more difficult to achieve the objective “create once, publish many”.
Publication is also important as a legal concept; first, as the process of giving formal notice to the world of a significant intention, for example, to marry or enter bankruptcy, and second, as the essential precondition of being able to claim defamation; that is, the alleged libel must have been published.
3. Answer the questions.
1. What is journalism?
2. Why is news-oriented journalism described as the “first rough draft of history”?
3. Should press be held accountable to the government or to the public?
4. What are the functions of public relations?
5. What do corporations use public relations for?
6. How can non-profit organizations benefit from using public relations?
7. Why do politicians use public relations?
8. What can change mass media and its relationship to society?
9. Why is publication important as a legal concept?
10. How is cross-media publishing understood?
4. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right.
1. to verify a) tendency; a general direction
2. trend b) to read and correct
3. issue c) having to give an explanation
4. deadline d) to remain faithful to; support firmly
5. to proofread e) to show the truth or accuracy of; check
6. to adhere f) person who buys things
7. accountable g) member of a law-making body
8. image h) fixed limit of time for finishing a piece of work
9. customer i) concept of somebody held by the public
10. legislator j) a problem; a point in question; something about which
there is debate or agreement
5. Find synonyms of the following words and words combinations in the text.
1. concerning 6. before
2. something told 7. exactness; correctness
3. belonging to the present time 8. to produce
4. to say what a thing or a person is like 9. the exchange of goods for money
5. happening, usually an important one 10.a group of people working together
6. Translate sentences from Russian into English using gerund.
1. Нельзя отрицать тот факт, что журналистика заслуживает того, чтобы ее называли четвертой ветвью власти.
2. Репортер не мог не упомянуть об этих фактах в своей статье, надеясь изменить ситуацию к лучшему.
3. Он избегал говорить на темы, связанные с его работой, опасаясь того, что его подвергнут судебному преследованию за раскрытие профессиональных секретов.
4. Издатели не возражали против публикации ее книги, но продолжали настаивать на внесении в нее поправок.
5. Само собой разумеется, что бесполезно обвинять средства массовой информации в причинении вреда, не имея достаточных доказательств.
7. Look through the text and suggest a headline.
One of the places where power really lies is the mewsroom in a major television station. In any free society it is people engaged in mass media that decide in large measure, what citizens will hear about their government, about what’s going on in the world, etc. It is they who decide what is seen and what is not seen, what is heard and what is not heard, what sees the light of day, or the dust on the cutting room floor. And in doing so, through the medium of television – the most powerful communication medium intended – they have a profound impact on the lives of everyone. Of course, they are not the only people who wield this power. They do it in concert with their competitors. They compete with a plethora of newspapers, magazines and other publications. These media can spotlight problems, encourage fellow citizens and government officials to address them, and empower even the destitute with real information. Everyone gains if the poor have a chance to improve their lot, taking part in the opportunities afforded by free speech, free press, and the right to assembly in democratic societies.
Any open and free society has a thirst for news, for the facts, for the truth. A hunger to hear what’s going on in the world, to hear both sides of the story. Nobody pretends the free press is pluperfect. Not even the press. But without a free press people are in trouble. How can a society claim to be free if it is not possible to tell freely what is going on in that society? To paraphrase Voltaire, sometimes, we may not like what you say, but we’ll defend to the death your right to say it. It is through freedom of the press that so many of the other attributes of a free society take on life and meaning. After all, there’s no point electing a legislature if no one can report what it gets up to. Without the free flow of ideas, without the constant clash of different opinions, how can we ever hope to get to the truth? Ideas have to be tested in open argument to see how they stand up, to distil truth from falsehood. How can any society claim to be free that doesn’t have this freedom?
A cleanly-elected, self-confident legislature is one of the buttresses of the freedoms any democratic society holds dear, but it is not the only one. A free press is, in its own way, just as important. You see, all these freedoms interrelate. Damage one and you harm another. Uphold one, and you reinforce the rest. It’s no good having a freely elected legislature without a free press to report its activities. If you can’t ask questions of Governors and governments, then you soon fetch up not just with bad government, but corrupt government, bullying government, imperious and ultimately, perhaps tyrannical government. Conversely, where questions can be asked, where there’s a healthy diversity of views, where the pompous and the secretive can be exposed, there you tend to have government that is accountable and government that is better. Autocrats understand all this better than most. They know you can’t repress people for long if your every action can be reported, criticised, exposed in the newspaper or on the small screen, – or, worst of all, satirized. Dictators and authoritarians don’t tend to be good at taking a joke.
So freedom of speech tends to be the first thing that authoritarian regimes try to suppress. They begin by conning the people – and they finish up by conning themselves. Fortunately for free societies, they do not represent the wave of the future because as the saying goes “you can kid some of the people for some of the time, but you can’t kid all of the people for all of the time.” The good news is that nowadays it is getting harder to kid them for even some of the time.
Where some years ago, economic, technological and social developments were generally thought to help solidify central control, today the reverse appears to be the case. Information and ideas are exchanged more freely and more widely. You have to feel sorry for the modern censor. He can strike out a sentence, he can doctor photographs, but more and more people have access to satellites and videos. True, you can ban satellite dishes and ban videos, but nobody imagines that you’ll succeed in doing that for very long – and in the meanwhile, of course, more people want satellite dishes and more people want to watch whatever you’ve banned. It means huge opportunities and great responsibilities. Thomas Jefferson once said “Our liberty depends on freedom of the press, and that cannot be limited without being lost.” That is true in any society.
8. Find the key-words in each paragraph of the text and translate them into Russian.
9. Find the English equivalents of the following word-combinations in the text and translate the sentences with them into Russian in writing.
1. оказывать глубокое влияние
2. держать в руках власть
3. конкурировать с изобилием газет
4. столкновение мнений
5. проверять идеи в открытом споре
6. причинять вред
7. сообщать о деятельности
8. подотчетное правительство
9. разоблачать действия
10. подавлять свободу слова
10. Give the summary of the text in Russian using the key-words and word-combinations from exercises 8 and 9.
11. Read the following text.
History of mass media
1. Types of drama in numerous cultures were probably the first mass-media, going back into the Ancient World. The first dated printed book known is the "Diamond Sutra", printed in China in 868 AD, although it is clear that books were printed earlier. Movable clay type was invented in 1041 in China. However, due to the slow spread to the masses of literacy in China, and the relatively high cost of paper there, the earliest printed mass-medium was probably European popular prints from about 1400. Although these were produced in huge numbers, very few early examples survive, and even most known to be printed before about 1600 have not survived. Johannes Gutenberg printed the first book on a printing press with movable type in 1453. The invention of this printing press transformed the way the world received printed materials, although books remained too expensive really to be called a mass-medium for at least a century after that.
2. Newspapers developed around from 1605, with the first example in English in 1620; but they took until the nineteenth century to reach a mass-audience directly. During the 20th century, the growth of mass media was driven by technology that allowed the massive duplication of material. Physical duplication technologies such as printing, record pressing and film duplication allowed the duplication of books, newspapers and movies at low prices to huge audiences. Radio and television allowed the electronic duplication of information for the first time.
3. Mass media had the economics of linear replication: a single work could make money proportional to the number of copies sold, and as volumes went up, units costs went down, increasing profit margins further. Vast fortunes were to be made in mass media. In a democratic society, independent media serve to educate the public/electorate about issues regarding government and corporate entities. Some consider the concentration of media ownership to be a grave threat to democracy.
12. Combine the following sentences to make one complete statement. Make every change you think necessary, but do not change the sense of the original. Refer to the text, when you have finished the exercise.
A printing press was invented. The world received printed materials in a transformed way due to this invention. But after the invention books remained too expensive. That is why they were not called a mass-medium for at least a century. (paragraph 1)
13. Find sentences with a) participle I, b) participle II, c) Infinitive. Analyse them and suggest different ways of their translation.
14. Translate the text in writing.
15. Before translating the text from Russian into English translate the following words.
1. investigation, investigate, investigative, investigator;
2. discussion, discuss;
3. participant, participation, participate;
4. development, develop;
5. communication, communicate, communicator, communicative;
6. dominant, domination, dominance, dominate;
7. strengthening, strengthen, strength, strong;
8. success, successful, successfully, succeed;
9. merge, mergee, mergence, merger;
10. compete, competition, competitioner, competitive, competitiveness, competitor;
16. Match word combinations on the left with their English equivalents on the right.
1. приступить к исследованию a) to interpret the logic of the process
2. осмыслить логику процесса b) to be aware of the fact that
3. меняться стремительно c) to take place
4. происходить d) dominant position
5. отдавать себе отчет в том, что e) capitalization of earning
6. подчиняться законам f) on the one hand …, on the other hand …
7. господствующее положение g) depending on
8. капитализация прибыли h) to get down to the research
9. с одной стороны …, i) to obey laws
с другой стороны…
10. в зависимости от j) to change swiftly
17. Translate the following sentences into English, using Passive Voice.
1. В данном исследовании рассматриваются проблемы, связанные с процессом концентрации средств массовой информации.
2. Большое внимание, уделяемое проблемам средств массовой информации, объясняется тем, что в настоящее время они интенсивно развиваются и трансформируются.
3. С того времени, как первые средства массовой информации были изобретены, они проникли во все области деятельности людей и сейчас являются неотъемлемой частью жизни общества.
4. Если средства массовой информации будут монополизированы, на рынке будет установлена система монопольного диктата цен.
5. Отсутствие теоретической базы в этой области было обусловлено тем, что сам процесс концентрации средств массовой информации был недостаточно изучен к этому времени.
18. Translate the text in writing.
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