Task 1. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law. Pay special attention to the words and word combinations in bold type.
The European Convention on Human Rights
While it is true to say that all societies require limitations upon total individual freedom to do, say, write, meet, etc., it is also true that any civilized society will attempt to maximize the liberty and minimize the restriction upon an individual's freedom.
The problem of human rights is a matter of liberties rather than rights. According to Professor Williams, a liberty means any occasion on which an act or omission is not a breach of a duty. A right exists where there is a positive law on the subject; a liberty where there is no law against it.
In English law there is no written constitution nor any Bill of Rights to enshrine individual freedoms. Since the Second World War a number of international agreements, treaties, conventions and so on have been drawn up to protect, stabilize and increase civil liberties.
As examples, consider the following:
1) the Universal Declaration of Human Rights — United Nations Organization. This was adopted by the General Assembly on December 10, 1948.
2) the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 1950 — Council of Europe. This is not an institution of the European Community, but an international organization of twenty-one West European states which was formed in 1949; it was the first post-war attempt at unifying Europe. Twenty of the twenty-one are parties to the convention — Liechtenstein being an exception. The convention came into force on September 3, 1953.
The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948. This Declaration sought to define a set of individual rights which were considered to be fundamental to the well-being of citizens of all countries. They included the right to an adequate standard of living, the right to work, the right to a fair trial and the right to own property. The ECHR is not as broad as the UDHR but is nevertheless an important document.
The Convention was drafted under the auspices of the Council of Europe, an international organization composed of 21 West European states which was formed in 1949 as the result of the first post-war attempt at unifying Europe. The impetus for the Convention came from the need to define more closely the obligations of members of the Council concerning «human rights», and, more generally, from the wish to provide a bulwark against communism and to prevent a recurrence of conditions which Europe had then recently witnessed. It was believed that the Convention would serve as an alarm that would bring violations of human rights to the attention of the international community in time for it to take action to suppress them. In practice, this function of the Convention, which imagines large-scale violations of human rights, has largely remained dormant. The Convention has instead been used primarily to raise questions of isolated weaknesses in legal systems that basically conform to its requirements and which are representative of the «common heritage of political traditions, ideals, freedom and the rule of law» to which the preamble to the Convention refers. Most commonly such questions have concerned the administration of criminal justice, although the impact of the Convention in other areas is increasingly being explored. The Convention is concerned mainly with civil and political rights. The rights included in the Convention include the right to life, the right to liberty and security of person, the right not to be subjected to inhuman or degrading treatment, not to be required to perform forced or compulsory labour, the right to a fair hearing, to respect for private life, to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, to freedom of expression and assembly and free elections. These, and the other provisions of the ECHR are called Articles.
The parties to the Convention are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Liechtenstein is a member of the Council of Europe but not a party to the Convention.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
1. Do all societies require limitations upon total individual freedom to do, say, write, meet?
2. Does any civilized society try to minimize the restriction upon an individual's freedom?
3. Do you agree that the problem of human rights is a matter of liberties rather than of rights?
4. Give a definition of the term «right».
5. Give a definition of the term «liberty».
6. Is there any written constitution or any Bill of Rights to enshrine individual freedoms in English law?
7. Are there any treaties or conventions to protect and increase civil liberties in international law? What do you remember about them?
Task 2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
to define a set of individual rights
the well-being of citizens of all countries
the right to an adequate standard of living
the right to own property
under the auspices of the Council of Europe
the impetus for the Convention
to prevent a recurrence of conditions
in practice
large-scale violation of human rights
to remain dormant
common heritage of political traditions
the administration of criminal justice
Task 3. Complete the sentences with the words and word combinations from the boxes:
(a)
| commonly criminal justice impact mainly | concerning obligations well-being | freedom violations post-war attempt |
(1) The council of Europe was formed as the result of the first ________ at unifying Europe.
(2) These rights were considered to be fundamental to the ________ of citizens of all countries.
(3) It was necessary to define more closely the _________ of members of the council _______ «human rights».
(4) It will bring __________ of human rights to the attention of the international community.
(5) Most __________ such question have concerned the administration of ________.
(6) The _________ of the Convention in other areas is increasingly being explored.
(7) The Convention is concerned _________ with civil and political rights.
(b)
| human rights limitations the restriction written constitution | individual freedoms proclaimed agreements, treaties, conventions | adopted a breach of a duty came into force according to |
(1) All societies require ___ upon total individual freedom to do, say, write, meet.
(2) Any civilized society tries to minimize ___ upon an individual's freedom.
(3) The problem of ___ is a matter of liberties rather than of rights.
(4) In English law there is no ___
(5) In English law there is not any Bill of Rights to enshrine ____
(6) In international law there are some ___ for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms.
(7) The United Nations Organization ___ the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on 10 December, 1948.
(8) The Council of Europe ___ the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in 1953.
(9) The European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms ___ on 3 September, 1953.
(10) ___ Professor Williams a liberty means any occasion on which an act or omission is not ___
Task 4. (a) Complete the text below with the words and word combinations from the box:
| liberty six years | of discrimination by a majority |
The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms proclaims the main human rights and freedoms: the right to life, ___ and security, prohibition of torture, prohibition of slavery and forced labour, right to a fair trial, no punishment without law, right to respect for private and family life, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of peaceful assembly and association, the right to marry and to found a family without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, prohibition _______ and so on.
The European Court of Human Rights was set up to ensure the observance of the fundamental human rights and freedoms. It functions on a permanent basis. The term of office of every judge is ______ and expires when the judge is 70 years old. The judges must hold office until replaced. The judges must be of high moral character. No one can dismiss the judge from his office unless the other judges decide ________ of two-thirds that he does not fulfill the required conditions any more.
(b) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the box:
| NB | breach — нарушение (права, закона, договора и т.д.) | ||
| (1) breach of duty | несправедливость, нарушение принципов правосудия | ||
| (2) breach of faith | нарушение права, закона | ||
| (3) breach of justice | нарушение обязательств | ||
| (4) breach of law | нарушение общественного порядка | ||
| (5) breach of obligations | злоупотребление доверием, вероломство | ||
| (6) breach of promise | злоумышленное нарушение | ||
| (7) breach of the peace | нарушение обещания, нарушение данного слова | ||
| (8) malicious breach | нарушение, неисполнение обязанности | ||
| (9) breach of confidence | нарушение договора | ||
| (10) breach of contract | нарушение порядка | ||
| (11) breach of order | нарушение доверия | ||
Task 5. Translate the following word combinations and sentences into English:
права человека
цивилизованное общество
расширить свободы граждан
довести до минимума ограничения свобод граждан
по мнению (кого-либо)
нарушение закона (невыполнение обязательства)
обеспечивать свободы личности
международное право
составлять документы
соглашение
договор
конвенция
Вторая мировая война
Организация Объединенных Наций
защищать и расширять гражданские права
провозглашать
Всеобщая декларация прав человека
Совет Европы
Конвенция о защите прав человека и основных свобод
вступить в силу
право на жизнь, на свободу и на личную неприкосновенность
запрещение пыток
запрет рабства и принудительного труда
право на справедливый суд
право на невмешательство / уважение частной и семейной жизни
право на свободу мысли, совести и религии
право на свободу убеждений и на свободное выражение их
право на свободу мирных собраний и ассоциаций
право вступать в брак и основывать семью без всяких ограничений по признаку расы, национальности или религии
Европейский суд по правам человека
функционировать на постоянной основе
срок полномочий
уволить судью, лишить судью полномочий
если только не…
принять решение большинством голосов в две трети
соответствовать предъявляемым требованиям
(1) Вопрос о правах человека в большей степени является проблемой свобод, нежели прав.
(2) По мнению профессора Уильямса, свобода означает любые условия, при которых действие или бездействие не являются нарушением закона.
(3) Любое цивилизованное общество пытается расширить свободы граждан и довести до минимума ограничения свобод граждан.
(4) Свобода существует там, где нет закона, ее ограничивающего.
(5) Генеральная Ассамблея Объединенных Наций провозгласила Всеобщую декларацию прав человека в 1948 г.
(6) Совет Европы принял Европейскую Конвенцию о защите прав человека и основных свобод в 1953 г.
(7) Европейский суд по правам человека был учрежден в целях обеспечения соблюдения основных прав и свобод человека.
(8) Срок полномочий каждого судьи шесть лет.
(9) Срок полномочий судьи истекает, когда ему исполняется 70 лет.
(10) Судья должен выполнять свои обязанности, пока ему не будет найден преемник. Судьи должны обладать высокими моральными качествами.
(11) Никто не может лишить судью полномочий за исключением случаев, когда другие судьи большинством голосов в две трети принимают решение, что данный судья уже не соответствует предъявляемым к нему требованиям.
Task 6. Study the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. What human rights and fundamental freedoms listed in the Declaration aren't observed throughout the world yet? Study the texts below and give your opinion on the problem of human rights.
In past centuries infants in China were sometimes kidnapped and turned into «animal children». Every day, starting with the back, the captors would remove a bit of the unfortunate child's skin and transplant pieces of the hide of a bear or dog in its place. The process was tedious, for the hide adhered only on spots, and the children often died in the midst of treatment. The captors also destroyed their victims' vocal cords, forced them to walk on all fours, and tortured them to such an extent that the innocent infants were soon bereft of all reason. One result of such atrocities was the «wild boy of Kiangse», exhibited in the nineteenth century before a group of westerners in China. The child walked on all fours, made a peculiar barking sound, and was covered with a fuzzy, leathery kind of hide. An American doctor named Macgowan who witnessed that spectacle recorded that another method of creating child-monsters in China was to deprive the children of light for several years so that their bones would become deformed.
Notes:
| the hide of a bear | шкура медведя |
| to destroy vocal cords | разрушать голосовые связки |
| to force smb to walk on all fours | заставлять кого-либо ходить на четвереньках |
| to torture smb to such an extent that… | мучить кого-либо до такой степени, что… |
| to be bereft of all reason | лишиться рассудка |
| to make barking sounds | производить гавкающие звуки |
| fuzzy — пушистый; leathery | похожий на кожу |
| to deprive the children of light | лишать детей света |
* * *
In seventeenth-century Europe there were wandering bands of smugglers called comprachicos whose stock-in-trade was buying children, deforming them, and selling them to the aristocracy, who thought it fashionable to have freaks in court. The comprachicos' «arts» included slunting children's growth, placing muzzles on their faces to deform them (it was from this practice that Dumas took his theme for The Man in the Iron Mask), slitting their eyes, dislocating their joints, and malforming their bones. James II of England hired comprachicos to kidnap the heirs of families whose lines he wished to extinguish. Victor Hugo's The Man Who Laughs had a grotesque permanent smile carved by the comprachicos.
Notes:
| wandering bands of smugglers | бродячие группы контрабандистов |
| stock-in-trade | шаблонные манеры и уловки, присущие определенным лицам; (зд.) ремесло |
| a freak | уродец |
| in court | при дворе |
| а muzzle | морда, намордник |
| to slit | разрезать в длину, расщеплять, раскалывать |
| to dislocate joints | перемещать конечности / части тела |
| to malform (bones) | деформировать, уродовать (кости) |
| an heir (of a family) | наследник (семьи) |
| to extinguish | уничтожать |
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