(UNCAC) were adopted following the precedent of the

1988 Drug Trafficking Convention (the United Nations

Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and

Psychotropic Substances), to establish rules, institu-

tions and shared responsibility to combat transnation-

al crime. They play a key role in harmonizing obligations

and addressing legal gaps in international cooperation

in criminal matters. For example, these instruments

provide a basis for extradition and mutual legal

assistance.

There is almost universal adherence to the three

crime-related conventions. As of 5 December 2014, the

1988 Drug Trafficking Convention had 189 parties, the

UNTOC 183 and the UNCAC 174 parties.

United Nations multilateral instruments

as catalysts for further international

cooperation

The universal crime-related conventions encourage

States parties to conclude bilateral and multilateral

agreements to increase the effectiveness of interna-

tional cooperation.

The ultimate objective is to enhance international co-

operation through broadening the range of legal bases

on which States can rely through a combined use of

multilateral and bilateral agreements.

The model treaties developed through the

United Nations Crime Congresses have offered guid-

ance towards convergence of related treaty provi-

sions. The Model Treaty on Extradition and the Model

Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, in

particular, are valuable tools for the development of

bilateral and multilateral arrangements in the area of

judicial cooperation.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

(UNODC) has also developed tools that promote and

support inter national cooperation in criminal matters,

including the Directory of Competent Authorities,

the Mutual Legal Assistance Request Writer Tool and,

most recently, the knowledge management portal

known as SHERLOC (Sharing ElectronicResources

and Laws against Crime). UNODC also runs the

Counter-Terrorism Online Learning Platform, which

provides a gateway to practitioners (mostly criminal

justice and law enforcement) for networking, exchang-

ing information and sharing best practices

Terrorism and Extremism.

The terms ‘terrorism’ and ‘extremism’ are sometimes used interchangeably. However, there is a significant difference between the two. Terrorism is essentially threat or act of physical violence. Extremism involves using non-physical instruments to mobilize minds to achieve political or ideological ends. For instance, Al Qaeda is involved in terrorism while the Iranian revolution of 1979 is a case of extremism. A global research report An Inclusive World (2007) asserts that extremism poses a more serious threat than terrorism in the decades to come. For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality are extremely careful in their use of the term.

Some groups, when involved in a ‘liberation’ struggle, were called terrorists by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, were called statesmen by the same organisations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela.

Sometimes states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether members of a certain organisation are terrorists. For example for many years some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists, while it was using methods against one of the United States’ closest allies – Britain. But Britain branded the attacks as terrorist.

Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organisations in furthering their objectives both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic, and religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments. An International Round Table on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing Terror (2004) recommended that a distinction should be made between terrorism and acts of terror. While acts of terrorism are criminal acts as recognized by the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 and domestic jurisprudence of almost all countries in the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the perpetrators of acts of terrorism themselves and their motives. There is an intellectual consensus globally, that acts of terrorism should not be accepted under any circumstances.

The only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence. The attack is carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a “performance,” devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show their power and to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government’s legitimacy, while increasing the legitimacy of the given terrorist organisation and/or ideology behind a terrorist act.

Something all terrorist attacks have in common is their perpetration for a political purpose. Terrorism is a political tactic that is used by activists when they believe no other means will influence the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship between terrorism and religion occurs.

Foreign Policy.

A country‘s foreign policy is a set of goals that seeks to outline how that particular country will interact on an official basis with other countries of the world and, to a lesser extent, non-state actors. As well, an entire range of factors relating to those other nations including economic, political, social, military etc. is evaluated and monitored in attempts to maximize benefits of multilateral international cooperation. Foreign policies are designed to help protect a country’s national interests, national security, ideological goals, and economic prosperity. This can occur as a result of peaceful cooperation with other nations, or through aggression, war, and exploitation.

The purpose of a foreign policy doctrine is to provide general rules for the conduct of foreign policy through decisions on international relations. These rules allow the political leadership of a nation to deal with a situation and to explain the actions of a nation to other nations.

Usually, creating foreign policy is the job of the head of government and the foreign minister. In some countries the legislature also has considerable oversight. As an exception, in France and Finland, it is the head of state that is responsible for foreign policy, while the head of government mainly deals with internal policy. In the United States, the head of state (the President) also functions as the head of government.

A foreign policy doctrine is a general statement of foreign policy and belief system through a doctrine. In some cases, the statement is made by a political leader, typically a nation’s chief executive or chief diplomat, and comes to be named after that leader. Richard Nixon‘s justification for the phased withdrawal of the United States from Vietnam, for example, came to be called the Nixon Doctrine. This pattern of naming is not universal, however; Chinese doctrines, for example, are often referred to by number. “Doctrine” is usually not meant to have any negative connotations; it is especially not to be confused with “dogma.”

Negotiations.

Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute resolution.

Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organisations, government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life.

The study of the subject is called negotiation theory.

Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators.

Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.

Negotiation typically manifests itself with a trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organisation or position.

It can be compared to mediation where a disinterested third party listens to each side’s arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties.

It is also related to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their “case” and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for both parties.

Cherry picking is used primarily in purchasing negotiations, although the principles are applicable to many other situations. In essence, the purchaser pursuing a cherry picking strategy examines the proposals of several potential vendors, picks out the best components from each proposal, and then tries to negotiate based upon their “ideal” proposal.

Salami sausages are big things (often spicy) that are eaten a slice at a time, they would be indigestible if taken in a single large piece. This aspect has led negotiators to use the name salamy tactics for a negotiating technique that tries to do just that: to win concessions in small doses (slices) when the other party would probably reject them if they were put on the table all at once. It is often used on a party that is mainly concerned with damage limitation.

Globalisation.

Globalisation in its literal sense is the process of making, transformation of some things or phenomena into global ones. It can be described as a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society and function together. This process is a combination of economic, technological, social and cultural and political forces. Globalisation is very often used to refer to economics, i.e. integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.

Sometimes the terms internationalisation and globalisation are used interchangeably but there is a slight formal difference. The term “internationalisation” refers to the importance of international trade, relations, treaties etc. International means between or among nations. Globalisation means erasure of national boundaries for economic, political, and other purposes; international trade (governed by comparative advantage) becomes interregional trade (governed by absolute advantage).

The word “globalisation” has been used by economists since the 1980’s; however, its concepts did not become popular until the later half of the 1980s and 1990’s. The earliest written theoretical concepts of globalisation were penned by an American proponent of globalisation) Charles Taze Russell who coined the term ‘corporate giants’. Anti-globalisation (mundialism) is a term used to describe the political stance of people and groups (opponents) who oppose the neoliberal version of globalisation. Advocates of globalisation are also called pro-globalists.