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International Relations.
International Relations (IR) is a branch of political science. It represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and can be either positive or normative as it both seeks to analyse as well as formulate the foreign policy of particular states.
Apart from political science, IR draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues, from globalisation and its impacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, terrorism, organised crime, human security, and human rights.
International Relations is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organisations and certain subnational entities (e.g. political parties and interest groups). It studies the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations, non-governmental organisations, and multinational corporations. International relations involves a diverse range of issues, from globalisation and its impacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecological problems, nuclear proliferation, economic development, terrorism, organised crime, human security, and human rights.
It seeks both to analyze as well as formulate foreign policy. It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.
Systemic tools of international relations are:
• Diplomacy which is the practice of conducting negotiating between representatives of states. All other tools of international relations can be considered the failure of diplomacy.
• Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure of diplomacy, and are one of the main tools used to enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or economic sanctions.
• War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ultimate tool of international relations. A widely accepted definition is that “war is the continuation of politics by other means”.
• The mobilization of international shame can also be thought of as a tool of international relations. This is attempting to alter states actions through ‘naming and shaming’ at the international level.
2. International Law.
Body of legal rules governing interaction between sovereign states (Public International Law) and the rights and duties of the citizens of sovereign states towards the citizens of other sovereign states (Private International Law). Since there has never been a law making body for international law, it has been built up piecemeal through accords, agreements, charters, compromises, conventions, memorandums, protocols, treaties, tribunals, understandings, etc. The statute of the International Court Of Justice (judicial arm of the UN which has no enforcement power, and can adjudicate only where both sides agree to abide by its decisions) states the basis on which it adjudicates cases before it as "(a) international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states; (b) international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; (c) the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations." It is not 'World Law' but law between consenting sovereign states (each government can decide which law it will adhere to or not) and has not been able to solve the problems of inter-state aggression, conflict, terrorism, and war.
Despite its limited applicability, however, it has played a vital role over the centuries in developing a system of procedures and rules in areas (such as air, land, sea, outer-space, human rights) where one state's existence impinges that of the others. The General assembly of the UN is entrusted with developing international law. Also called law of nations.
The principles of international law and are usually formed by treaty. They perform two functions simultaneously: help stabilize international relations and limiting their specific regulatory framework, and fix everything new that appears in the practice of international relations, and thus contribute to their development.
The basic principles of international law enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations.1.The principle of non-use or threat of force. 2. The principle of territorial integrity of states. 3. The principle of inviolability of frontiers. and others
Несмотря на его ограниченную применимость, однако, это играло жизненно важную роль за века в разработке системы процедур и правил в областях (таких как воздух, земля, море, космос, права человека), где существование одного государства посягает существование других. Генеральной Ассамблее ООН доверяют развитие международного права. Также названный международным правом.
Принципы международного права и обычно формируются соглашением. Они выполняют две функции одновременно: помощь стабилизирует международные отношения и ограничение их определенной нормативной базы, и фиксирует все новое, которое появляется в практике международных отношений, и таким образом способствуйте их развитию.
Основные принципы международного права хранены в Уставе Организации Объединенных Наций.Принцип неиспользования или угроза силы. 2. Принцип территориальной целостности государств. 3. Принцип неприкосновенности frontiers . and других
Activities in the economic and environmental dimension include the monitoring of developments related to economic and environmental security in OSCE participating States, with the aim of preventing them from any threat of conflict.
The Law of Treaties.
The Law of Treaties is a set of international and national rules that governs the life of treaties from their formation to termination, passing through all their effects and disturbances. The majority of international rules have been codified by conventions of universal vocation, the most important of which is the Convention on the Law of Treaties concluded between states (Vienna, 23 May 1969). The content of the convention is comprehensive but not exhaustive. It covers only interstate relations and excludes issues such as the international responsibility for noncompliance, the effects of the outbreak of hostilities, and state succession in respect of treaties. The conventional relations between states and international organizations and between different international organizations are regulated by the convention of 21 March 1986, which conforms to the 1969 convention. Besides, the succession of states in respect of treaties is the subject of the convention of 23 August 1978. Customary rules are applicable to all issues that fall outside the scope of application of these conventions. The dispositive character of a number of international norms and their references to domestic law explain the existence of numerous national provisions applicable to treaties. Treaties have existed since political communities have been willing to interact peacefully and are the best sources of rights and obligations. The coexistence and cooperation among international subjects rests substantially upon them. The progressive expansion of their material objects has been accompanied by a growing technical complexity.
Международное договорное право - ряд международных и национальных правил, который управляет жизнью соглашений от их формирования до завершения, проходя через все их эффекты и беспорядки. Большинство международных правил шифровалось соглашениями универсального призвания, самым важным из которых является Соглашение по Международному договорному праву, завершенному между государствами (Вена, 23 мая 1969). Содержание соглашения всестороннее, но не исчерпывающее. Это покрывает только межгосударственные отношения и исключает проблемы, такие как международная ответственность за несоблюдение, эффекты вспышки военных действий и государственную последовательность в отношении соглашений. Обычные отношения между государствами и международными организациями и между различными международными организациями отрегулированы соглашением от 21 марта 1986, которое соответствует соглашению 1969 года. Кроме того, последовательность государств в отношении соглашений - предмет соглашения от 23 августа 1978. Нормы обычного права применимы ко всем проблемам, которые выходят за пределы области применения этих соглашений. Установочный характер многих международных норм и их ссылок на внутригосударственное право объясняет существование многочисленных национальных условий, применимых к соглашениям. Соглашения существовали, так как политические сообщества были готовы взаимодействовать мирно и являются лучшими источниками прав и обязательств. Сосуществование и сотрудничество среди международных предметов опираются существенно на них. Прогрессивное расширение их материальных объектов сопровождалось растущей технической сложностью.
VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES
OSCE – The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europeis a treaty concerning the international law on treaties between states. It was adopted on 22 May 1969 [4] and opened for signature on 23 May 1969. [2] The Convention entered into force on 27 January 1980. [2] The VCLT has been ratified by 114 states as of April 2014. [3] Some countries that have not ratified the Convention, such as the United States , [5] recognize parts of it as a restatement of customary law and binding upon them as such.
Diplomatic Law.
Diplomatic law is that area of international law that governs permanent and temporary diplomatic missions A fundamental concept of diplomatic law is that of diplomatic immunity, which derives from state immunity
Key elements of diplomatic law are the immunity of diplomatic staff, the inviolability of the diplomatic mission and its grounds, and the security of diplomatic correspondence and diplomatic bags Famous cases involving the breaking of diplomatic laws includes the Iran hostage crisis in 1979, the shooting of a British police woman from the Libyan Embassy in London in 1984, and the discovery of a former Nigerian Minister in a diplomatic crate at Stansted airport1 in 1984
It is also an accepted principle of customary international law and is recognised between countries as a matter of practicality Diplomatic law is often strictly adhered to by states because it works on reciprocity For example, if you expel diplomats from a certain country, then your diplomats will most likely be expelled from that country
Consular Law.
Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 (General Assembly resolution 217 A) as a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages.
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
Terrorism and Extremism.
The terms ‘terrorism’ and ‘extremism’ are sometimes used interchangeably. However, there is a significant difference between the two. Terrorism is essentially threat or act of physical violence. Extremism involves using non-physical instruments to mobilize minds to achieve political or ideological ends. For instance, Al Qaeda is involved in terrorism while the Iranian revolution of 1979 is a case of extremism. A global research report An Inclusive World (2007) asserts that extremism poses a more serious threat than terrorism in the decades to come. For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality are extremely careful in their use of the term.
Some groups, when involved in a ‘liberation’ struggle, were called terrorists by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, were called statesmen by the same organisations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela.
Sometimes states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether members of a certain organisation are terrorists. For example for many years some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists, while it was using methods against one of the United States’ closest allies – Britain. But Britain branded the attacks as terrorist.
Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organisations in furthering their objectives both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic, and religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments. An International Round Table on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing Terror (2004) recommended that a distinction should be made between terrorism and acts of terror. While acts of terrorism are criminal acts as recognized by the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 and domestic jurisprudence of almost all countries in the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the perpetrators of acts of terrorism themselves and their motives. There is an intellectual consensus globally, that acts of terrorism should not be accepted under any circumstances.
The only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence. The attack is carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a “performance,” devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show their power and to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government’s legitimacy, while increasing the legitimacy of the given terrorist organisation and/or ideology behind a terrorist act.
Something all terrorist attacks have in common is their perpetration for a political purpose. Terrorism is a political tactic that is used by activists when they believe no other means will influence the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship between terrorism and religion occurs.
Foreign Policy.
A country‘s foreign policy is a set of goals that seeks to outline how that particular country will interact on an official basis with other countries of the world and, to a lesser extent, non-state actors. As well, an entire range of factors relating to those other nations including economic, political, social, military etc. is evaluated and monitored in attempts to maximize benefits of multilateral international cooperation. Foreign policies are designed to help protect a country’s national interests, national security, ideological goals, and economic prosperity. This can occur as a result of peaceful cooperation with other nations, or through aggression, war, and exploitation.
The purpose of a foreign policy doctrine is to provide general rules for the conduct of foreign policy through decisions on international relations. These rules allow the political leadership of a nation to deal with a situation and to explain the actions of a nation to other nations.
Usually, creating foreign policy is the job of the head of government and the foreign minister. In some countries the legislature also has considerable oversight. As an exception, in France and Finland, it is the head of state that is responsible for foreign policy, while the head of government mainly deals with internal policy. In the United States, the head of state (the President) also functions as the head of government.
A foreign policy doctrine is a general statement of foreign policy and belief system through a doctrine. In some cases, the statement is made by a political leader, typically a nation’s chief executive or chief diplomat, and comes to be named after that leader. Richard Nixon‘s justification for the phased withdrawal of the United States from Vietnam, for example, came to be called the Nixon Doctrine. This pattern of naming is not universal, however; Chinese doctrines, for example, are often referred to by number. “Doctrine” is usually not meant to have any negative connotations; it is especially not to be confused with “dogma.”
Negotiations.
Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute resolution.
Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organisations, government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life.
The study of the subject is called negotiation theory.
Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators.
Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
Negotiation typically manifests itself with a trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organisation or position.
It can be compared to mediation where a disinterested third party listens to each side’s arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties.
It is also related to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their “case” and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for both parties.
Cherry picking is used primarily in purchasing negotiations, although the principles are applicable to many other situations. In essence, the purchaser pursuing a cherry picking strategy examines the proposals of several potential vendors, picks out the best components from each proposal, and then tries to negotiate based upon their “ideal” proposal.
Salami sausages are big things (often spicy) that are eaten a slice at a time, they would be indigestible if taken in a single large piece. This aspect has led negotiators to use the name salamy tactics for a negotiating technique that tries to do just that: to win concessions in small doses (slices) when the other party would probably reject them if they were put on the table all at once. It is often used on a party that is mainly concerned with damage limitation.
Globalisation.
Globalisation in its literal sense is the process of making, transformation of some things or phenomena into global ones. It can be described as a process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society and function together. This process is a combination of economic, technological, social and cultural and political forces. Globalisation is very often used to refer to economics, i.e. integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.
Sometimes the terms internationalisation and globalisation are used interchangeably but there is a slight formal difference. The term “internationalisation” refers to the importance of international trade, relations, treaties etc. International means between or among nations. Globalisation means erasure of national boundaries for economic, political, and other purposes; international trade (governed by comparative advantage) becomes interregional trade (governed by absolute advantage).
The word “globalisation” has been used by economists since the 1980’s; however, its concepts did not become popular until the later half of the 1980s and 1990’s. The earliest written theoretical concepts of globalisation were penned by an American proponent of globalisation) Charles Taze Russell who coined the term ‘corporate giants’. Anti-globalisation (mundialism) is a term used to describe the political stance of people and groups (opponents) who oppose the neoliberal version of globalisation. Advocates of globalisation are also called pro-globalists.
International Relations.
International Relations (IR) is a branch of political science. It represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and can be either positive or normative as it both seeks to analyse as well as formulate the foreign policy of particular states.
Apart from political science, IR draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues, from globalisation and its impacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, terrorism, organised crime, human security, and human rights.
International Relations is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organisations and certain subnational entities (e.g. political parties and interest groups). It studies the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations, non-governmental organisations, and multinational corporations. International relations involves a diverse range of issues, from globalisation and its impacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecological problems, nuclear proliferation, economic development, terrorism, organised crime, human security, and human rights.
It seeks both to analyze as well as formulate foreign policy. It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.
Systemic tools of international relations are:
• Diplomacy which is the practice of conducting negotiating between representatives of states. All other tools of international relations can be considered the failure of diplomacy.
• Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure of diplomacy, and are one of the main tools used to enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or economic sanctions.
• War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ultimate tool of international relations. A widely accepted definition is that “war is the continuation of politics by other means”.
• The mobilization of international shame can also be thought of as a tool of international relations. This is attempting to alter states actions through ‘naming and shaming’ at the international level.
2. International Law.
Body of legal rules governing interaction between sovereign states (Public International Law) and the rights and duties of the citizens of sovereign states towards the citizens of other sovereign states (Private International Law). Since there has never been a law making body for international law, it has been built up piecemeal through accords, agreements, charters, compromises, conventions, memorandums, protocols, treaties, tribunals, understandings, etc. The statute of the International Court Of Justice (judicial arm of the UN which has no enforcement power, and can adjudicate only where both sides agree to abide by its decisions) states the basis on which it adjudicates cases before it as "(a) international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states; (b) international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; (c) the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations." It is not 'World Law' but law between consenting sovereign states (each government can decide which law it will adhere to or not) and has not been able to solve the problems of inter-state aggression, conflict, terrorism, and war.
Despite its limited applicability, however, it has played a vital role over the centuries in developing a system of procedures and rules in areas (such as air, land, sea, outer-space, human rights) where one state's existence impinges that of the others. The General assembly of the UN is entrusted with developing international law. Also called law of nations.
The principles of international law and are usually formed by treaty. They perform two functions simultaneously: help stabilize international relations and limiting their specific regulatory framework, and fix everything new that appears in the practice of international relations, and thus contribute to their development.
The basic principles of international law enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations.1.The principle of non-use or threat of force. 2. The principle of territorial integrity of states. 3. The principle of inviolability of frontiers. and others
Несмотря на его ограниченную применимость, однако, это играло жизненно важную роль за века в разработке системы процедур и правил в областях (таких как воздух, земля, море, космос, права человека), где существование одного государства посягает существование других. Генеральной Ассамблее ООН доверяют развитие международного права. Также названный международным правом.
Принципы международного права и обычно формируются соглашением. Они выполняют две функции одновременно: помощь стабилизирует международные отношения и ограничение их определенной нормативной базы, и фиксирует все новое, которое появляется в практике международных отношений, и таким образом способствуйте их развитию.
Основные принципы международного права хранены в Уставе Организации Объединенных Наций.Принцип неиспользования или угроза силы. 2. Принцип территориальной целостности государств. 3. Принцип неприкосновенности frontiers . and других
International Organisations ( structure , functions ).
International organisation is, by definition, any organisation with international membership, scope, or presence. However, in common usage, the term is usually reserved for intergovernmental organisations (IGO) such as the UN, the European Union, the Council of Europe, or the World Trade Organization, with sovereign states or other IGOs as members. Their scope and aims are most usually in the public interest but may also have been created with a specific purpose.
While many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) though privately created with international scope have international presence and aims.
Legally speaking, an international organisation may be established by a constituent document such as a charter, a treaty or a convention, which when signed by the founding members, provides the IGO with legal recognition. International organisations so established are subjects of international law, capable of entering into agreements among themselves or with states. Thus international organisations in a legal sense are distinguished from mere groupings of states, such as the G-8 and the G-77, neither of which have been founded by a constituent document and exist only as task groups, though in non-legal contexts these are sometimes referred erroneously as international organisations.
International organisations must also be distinguished from treaties. Many treaties (e.g., the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or, in the 1947-1995 period, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)) do not establish an international organisation and rely purely on the parties for their administration becoming legally recognised as an ad hoc commission.
International organisations differ in function, membership and membership criteria. Membership of some organisations (global organisations) is open to all the nations of the world as far as they comply with membership criteria and after approval by a general assembly or similar body. This category includes the United Nations and its specialised agencies and the World Trade Organization. Other organisations are only open to members from a particular region or continent of the world, like European Union, African Union, ASEAN and other regional organisations. Finally, some organisations base their membership on other criteria: cultural or historical links (the Commonwealth of Nations, La Francophonie, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union), level of economic development or type of economy (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Organisation of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC), or religion (Organisation of the Islamic Conference).
International organisations describe and define their purpose in their charter or other document of creation. International organisations exist with diverse aims: to increase international relations, promote education, health care, economic development, environmental protection, human rights, humanitarian efforts, inter-cultural approach and conflict resolution.
3. The United Nations (the General Assembly, the Security Council).
assembly[əˈsemblɪ] собрание Ассамблея
сущ. амер. |ˈkaʊnsl| американское произношение слова council
брит. |ˈkaʊns(ə)l| британское произношение слова council совет
The United Nations (UN) is an international organisation whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. The UN was founded in 1945 to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between nations and to provide a platform for dialogue.
In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on international organisation to draw up the United Nations Charter. The organisation officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter was ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and a majority of other signatories. It has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 October.
There are now 192 member states, including almost every recognized independent state. From its headquarters on international territory within New York City, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The UN’s most visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea.
The organisation is divided into administrative bodies, primarily: The General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly), The Security Council (decides certain resolutions for peace and security), The Economic and Social Council (assists in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development), The Secretariat (provides studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN) and The International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ).
Дата: 2019-03-05, просмотров: 672.