2015). However, it is immoral to accept the loss of any species without considering all strategies for its conservation (Cafaro & Primack, 2013), and KCBPs can provide for many species with a view toward eventual but unanticipated re-habitation or translocation (Dodd & Seigel, 1991; Germano & Bishop, 2006). Harding (2015) considered that knowledge gained through KCBPs can provide imaginative solutions that enable amphibians to survive current, emerging, and future threats, and increase our knowledge of species biology.

Legal harvest and legal trade of amphibians in general were supported by the majority of respondents. The low levels of support for trade and the high donation levels in Australia suggest an emphasis on institutional CBPs. These may result from a history of invasive and destructive exotic species, including the cane toad (Bufo marinus), resulting its presence in few private collections only.

Amphibians in CBPs can produce hundreds to thousands of offspring from one female that are difficult to place (Carrillo et al., 2015). Keepers CBPs could provide surplus amphibians for the pet trade. This would lower the price of threatened species and the demands on natural populations. The sale of surplus amphibians would also reduce pressure from illegal harvesting reduce pressure on threatened natural populations and generate financial benefits and incentives (Zipple et. al., 2011).

Literature and Internet searches found no
species of amphibian has reached extinction
through over-harvesting. However, over-

harvesting of some species is considered an increasing threat especially when combined with the general decline in amphibian populations globally (Carpenter et al., 2007; Rowley et al., 2016; Rowley et al., 2017). Therefore, the rescue of amphibians to establish KCBPs would seem little threat, and keepers can establish viable CBPs of increasingly threatened species before they reach a critical population in nature.

Unfortunately, 25% of amphibian species are
found only in unprotected and mostly modified
habitats (Nori et al., 2015). The low support in
other polities for legal trade may reflect the
exploitation of local communities rather than the
risk of species extinction. KCBPs could support
the responsible harvesting of amphibians to both
the benefit of local communities and
biodiversity    conservation. The    provision    of

founders for KCBPs could include community education   and   training   for    habitat    protection,

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and possibly eco- and scientific tourism. This is a far preferable scenario to current harvesting regimes where local suppliers are ruthlessly exploited in the supply chain. KCBPs could also work toward the protection and management of species´ habitats. Resources for amphibian CBPs are not equally divided globally and KCBPs may help address this deficiency through their international reach (Harding et al., 2015).

The recommended number of founders for CBPs is approximately 25 females and 25 males that must then establish populations of between 160 and 1000 to avoid loss of genetic variation (Schad, 2007). The use of cryopreserved sperm by storing the male genome, and particularly founders’ genomes, can reduce the recommended CBP population to 25 or less females with most males being represented as cryopreserved sperm (Browne et al., 2011; Clulow & Clulow, 2016). The Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (Gascon et al., 2007) estimated the costs for a CBP for one amphibian species (without the benefit of sperm banking) as US$120,000 for two facilities, ongoing costs of US$70,000 a year, and a share in consultant fees and training workshops of US$200,000. Keeper expertise in amphibian CBPs, supported by their strong social networks, would negate the need for costly consultants and training workshops. The estimated cost of 5 keepers per species and 10 individuals per keeper are less than US$10,000 with many keepers willing to cover costs.

Examples of KCBPs exist for many other
vertebrate orders, including CBPs within
government co-operative breeding programs
(AFA, 2015), and the Turtle Survival Alliance
(TSA, 2015), and especially for birds with their
extensive history in private collections such as
those of the American Federation of Aviculture
(AFA, 2017). KCBPs need to exchange
individuals to comply with studbook

requirements, and for importation of founders, and international trade agreements such as CITES must include regulations assisting the cross-border transport of amphibians for KCBPs (Conde et al., 2013).

Major differences between western and other polities were shown in respondent age of first interest and average age. A major peak in respondent age in western polities corresponded with those born in western polities from 1964 to 1970 a period of high environmental concern. The age of first interest of late childhood was much   lower   in   western   than   in   other   polities

Journal of Zoological Research V2 • I1 •2018