Origins of the Cadastre Concept
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Е. А. Назарова

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Учебное пособие

 

 

Москва 2011

Министерство сельского хозяйства Российской Федерации

 

Федеральное государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования

«Государственный университет по землеустройству»

 

Кафедра русского и иностранных языков

 

Е. А. Назарова

 

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

 

Рекомендовано Учебно-методическим объединением по образованию в области землеустройства и кадастров для межвузовского использования в качестве учебного пособия для студентов 1-2 курсов высших учебных заведений по специальности 123103 «Городской кадастр»

 

Москва 2011

УДК 802

ББК 81.2

 

Подготовлено и рекомендовано к печати

кафедрой русского и иностранных языков

 Государственного университета по землеустройству.

(протокол )

 

Утверждено к изданию методической комиссией

юридического факультета

Государственного университета по землеустройству.

(протокол….)

 

Автор:

ст. преподаватель, к.ф.н. Назарова Е. А.

 

Рецензент:

ст. преподаватель кафедры русского и иностранных языков Государственного университета по землеустройству

Титаренко Н. А.

 

 

УДК 802

ББК 81.2

 

© Государственный университет по землеустройству, 2011

                   © Назарова Е. А., 2011

 

 

 INTRODUCTION

Urban planning is a systematic, creative way to influence the future of neighborhoods, cities, rural and metropolitan areas, and even the country and the world. Urban planners use their professional skills to serve communities facing social, economic, environmental, and cultural challenges by helping community residents to: 1) develop ways to preserve and enhance their quality-of-life; 2) find methods to protect the natural and built environment; 3) identify policies to promote equity and equality; 4) structure programs to improve services to disadvantaged communities, and; 5) determine methods to deal effectively with growth and development of all kinds.

This textbook is designed to show you:  how fulfilling a career in planning might be; the wide variety of jobs which urban planners do; the kind of education and training you need to become an urban planner.

Is an Urban Planning Career for Me?

• Are you interested in positive social, economic, environmental, and physical change?

• Do you want to work with people from various backgrounds to develop a better community?

• Do you like to communicate with others about ideas, programs, and plans?

• Are you challenged by complex problems – and excited about being part of a cooperative process to devise solutions to those problems?

If you answered “YES” to any of these questions, you should seriously consider becoming an urban planner!

This textbook consists of 10 thematic sections, according to the educational program: Need for Cadastre‚ Professional Occupations‚ Real Estate Economics‚ Economy and Planning Municipal Services‚ Urban Management‚ Monitoring and Security of Urban Environment‚ Town-Planning Cadastre‚ Town Planning and Population Aggregate‚ Municipal Management‚ Land Evaluation. Each section includes grammar and lexical exercises. A glossary completes the book.

 

 

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Section 1

NEED FOR CADASTRE

Text   

Exercises

Answer the following questions.

1) What is a cadastre?

2) What is Blondheim?

3) Who established elaborate land-record systems?

4) When was the actual collection of data carried out?

5) Cadastre mapping program generated a series of estate maps at a scale of 1:2000, didn’t it?

Circle the Odd Word Out.

   1) Concept, bring, property;

   2) has, revenues, taxes;

   3) according, adjudicating, mapping;

   4) Euphrates, Nile, Physiocrats;

   5) narrowly, precursory, probably.

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Text

Urban Cadastre

The urban cadastre is an inventory of the real properties with juridical purposes, fiscal and of planning, which should be used as support to decisions making that redound to advantages for the community of the municipality. The real estate information contemplates four fundamental aspects: physics, related with the position, dimension, form and general characteristics of the real states; juridical, referred to the legal situation of property; fiscal, concerning to the taxing in function of the real state value; and social-economical, associated to the occupants of the real estates. The cadastre should support the tasks of planning and decisions making in the public and private sector, besides serving like mean to capture economical resources for the benefit of the community.

The cadastral information includes spatial data like the location, area, perimeter, vicinity, form, orientation, etc. of the lots of land. The basic concept in the urban cadastre is the real estate, which could give up of diverse forms: a lot of land simply, or a lot with one or several edifications, or also an apartment type condominium (it share the same land with others). In the case of the apartments, the planimetric location of each one of the real estates within the lot is the same for all those located in a same edification.

The requirements of the urban cadastre:

1. Hierarchical coding: Support the identification of the real estates following a hierarchical, such as the code includes information

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on the edification, the lot of land, the block and the sector where it is located.

2. Information and of the real estates: Permit the storage and processing of information related to the spatial characteristics of the lots and edifications like dimension, form, area, and no-spatial like the attributes of the owner and the occupants, use, value, public services, construction characteristic of the real estates, among others.

3. Information and of the sectors of the city: Including information on the public services, nets of streets, unit values of the land. The public services and the unit values of the land meet to street level, of such form that they associate to the real estates located in a determined street, allowing to know the services that they have and their unit values.

4. Tradition of the real estates: The historic information such as use, value, social-economical data of the people occupants, area, limits, co-ordinates of vertexes, etc., is important for legal and of planning ends.

5. Permissions of construction: Support the relative to the permissions of construction, modification or demolish of real estates in order to control this activity and make to complete the established urban norms. This will allow detecting the change on the characteristics of edification, which will serve for the updating of the real estate value.

6. Data input flexibility. The data could be obtained from several sources like air photographs, air-photogrammetric and topographical surveying, existent plans, census.

7. Robustness.

8. Extensibility.

9. Security and privacy.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

1) Четыре основные проблемы; 

2) кадастр должен поддерживать задачи планирования;

3) коммунальные услуги и единичные цены на землю;

4) реконструкция недвижимости;

5) данные можно получить из нескольких источников.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) City, country, urban;

2) concerning, making, planning;

3) besides, estates, lots;

4) community, security, simply;

5) area, land, tradition.

 

Section 2

         PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS

Text

Urban and Regional Planners

Urban and regional planners develop long- and short-term plans for the use of land and the growth and revitalization of urban, suburban, and rural communities and the region in which they are located. They help local officials alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems by recommending locations for roads, schools, and other infrastructure and suggesting zoning regulations for private property – work that requires forecasting the future needs of the population. Because local governments employ the majority of urban and regional planners, they often are referred to as community or city planners.

Planners  promote the   best   use   of   a  community's  land  and

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resources for residential, commercial, institutional, and recreational purposes. They address environmental, economic, and social health issues of a community as it grows and changes. They may formulate plans relating to the construction of new school buildings, public housing, or other kinds of infrastructure. Planners also may help to make decisions about developing resources and protecting ecologically sensitive regions. Some planners are involved in environmental issues including pollution control, wetland preservation, forest conservation, and the location of new landfills. Planners also may help to draft legislation on environmental, social, and economic issues, such as planning a new park, sheltering the homeless, or making the region more attractive to businesses.

Before preparing plans for community development, planners study and report on the current use of land for residential, business, and community purposes. Their reports include information on the location and capacity of streets, highways, airports, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and cultural and recreational sites. They also provide data on the types of industries in the community, the characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. Using this information, along with input from citizens, planners try to optimize land use for buildings and other public facilities. Planners prepare reports showing how their programs can be carried out and what they will cost.

Planners use computers to record and analyze information and to prepare reports and recommendations for government executives, developers and builders. Computer databases, spreadsheets, and analytical techniques are used to project program costs and forecast future trends in employment, housing, transportation, or population. Widespread use of computerized geographic information systems (GIS) enable planners to map land areas, to overlay maps with geographic variables such as population density, and to combine or manipulate geographic information to produce alternative plans for land use or development.

Urban and regional planners often work with land developers, civic leaders, and public officials and may function as mediators in community disputes, presenting alternatives that are acceptable to opposing   parties.   Planners  may   prepare   material  for  community

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relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legislative committees to explain and defend their proposals.

Most urban and regional planners focus on one or more areas of specialization, such as transportation planning, urban design, community development and redevelopment, and land-use or code enforcement. While planners may specialize in these, and other, areas, they are also required to keep the bigger picture in mind and do what's best for the community as a whole.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

1) Органы местного самоуправления; 

2) городские и районные планировщики;

3) информация по местоположению и размеру улиц;

4) планировщики используют компьютеры для записи и анализа информации;

5) обязанности специалистов по урегулированию споров и конфликтных ситуаций.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Planners, purposes, schools;

2) building, planning, using;

3) also, for, to;

4) airports, highways, roads;

5) the best, the cadastre‚ the growth.

 

5. Put the following nouns in plural form.

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

1) Стоимость объекта недвижимости; 

2) эксперт-оценщик или эксперт по оценке (недвижимого имущества);  

3) определённый вид недвижимости;

4) общепринятая практика;    

5) сумма обложения налогом.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Have, located, take;

2) appraisal, problem, valuation;

3)  land, parcel, trend;

4) generally, officially, property;

  5) although, during‚ often.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

1) вложения в недвижимость; 

2) менеджер конкретного объекта недвижимости; 

3) обслуживание зданий, безопасность, благоустройство и озеленение;    

4) долгосрочное оперативное финансовое планирование;   

5) они ведут переговоры по контракту.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Homeowners, managers, operates;

2) and, of, to;

3) advertise, paid, planned;

4) can, may, own;

5) community, property‚ usually.

 

Text

Exercises

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Boundaries, cartographers, photogrammetrists;

2) assist, calculation, collect;

3) area, field, record;

4) river, site, water;

5) engineering‚ including, marketing.

 

5. Translate the sentences into English

using possessive pronouns.

1) Картографы несут ответственность за свою работу.

 2) Покажите им свои данные этого участка земли.

3) Каковы ваши обязанности?

4) Думаю, ваши карты устарели.

5) Вам нравится ваша работа?

 

Section 3

REAL ESTATE ECONOMICS

Text

Real Estate

Real estate  is land and all that is either  on  or under it, including

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water, trees, buildings, minerals, and oil. "Real estate," also called "real property," is a term that developed in medieval times. When contests were held over the title of a piece of land, the person judged as rightful owner received the real (actual) property as the settlement of the dispute.

The term "real estate" is used today to refer to land and the property on it, and to the real estate industry – including the sale and leasing of both domestic and commercial land, appurtenant property, and the financing of and investment in real properties.

In the selling and renting of both domestic and commercial real estate, brokers buy and sell and appraise fix value. Property managers and a host of others arrange rentals. Another set of persons is involved with the financing of real estate purchases or rentals and mortgage issues for purchase.

Real estate is a significant and essential component of the national economy. For the nation’s firms it represents the supply of space necessary to produce goods and services. For institutional investors‚ real estate represents an asset class that provides diversification benefits.

Another matter understands the relationship between real estate and economic growth which is important for many reasons. In many developing countries, ownership of land is more concentrated than ownership of other assets, so growth in the share of rent in national income has important implications for the overall concentration of wealth.

The relationship between real estate and economic growth also has implications for the relative returns of real estate versus other investments.

Exercises

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Building, mineral, oil;

2) brokers‚ managers, mortgages;

3) buy‚ call‚ sell;

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 4) land, property, tree;

5) implication‚ important‚ relationship.

 

Text

Real Estate Market

Real estate markets can best be described by imperfect information; the players do not know the locations or the reservation prices of their potential trading partners. This lack of information compels each player to engage in search activity in order to find a trading partner. Once two players have contacted each other‚ they bargain over the price of the house. There is a linkage between the bargaining stage and the search stage of the game‚ in that the price a player expects to emerge from  the  bargaining  process  will affect his

choice of search intensity.

The equilibrium search intensities of the seller and the buyer are smaller when the house is listed with a broker. The seller receives a higher price when he employs a broker‚ but the increase in price is smaller than the commission fee.

Research on real estate by urban economists has concentrated almost entirely on the markets for space‚ while research on real estate by financial economists has concentrated almost entirely on the real estate capital markets. The price of real estate is typically viewed as being determined solely in the capital market (where investors demand real estate as capital asset)‚ whereas rent levels and vacancy rates are viewed as being determined solely in the space market (where potential users demand space). A more general view‚ however‚ considers the interaction between these two markets and is needed to correctly interpret changes in these two separate (but dependent) markets.

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The integration of urban and financial economic research that will be achieved with the general approach should offer a better understanding of the markets in general.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

1) Предполагаемые торговые партнёры;       

2) участвовать в  розыскном действии; 

3) высокая стоимость;

4) этап ведения переговоров и этап поиска;   

5) наилучшее понимание рынка.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Brokers‚ markets, players;

2) be‚ in, to;

3) best‚ higher‚ smaller;

4) demand‚ listed‚ needed;

5) buyer‚ fee, seller.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

1) Современная кадастровая регистрационная система;       

2) землепользование становится интенсивным; 

3) современная топографическая информационная система ;   

4) состояние собственности;   

5) правовое положение.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Only‚ property, traditionally;

2) being‚ containing, growing;

3) earth‚ land‚ purpose;

4) and‚ are‚ is;

5) complex‚ data, parcels.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

1) Теоретический интерес;  

2) оценка снижения стоимости; 

3) исследовательская работа;   

4) неоднородность междугороднего ценообразования;   

5) дополнительное вознаграждение за риск.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Blossoming‚ following, securitizing;

2) complexity‚ directly, significantly;

3) for‚ on‚ the;

4) cost‚ returns‚ transaction;

5) estimate‚ risk, value.

 

Text

Mortgage Lending

Loan administration costs and the costs of search for information about risk are found to be determinants of spatial interest rate differentials. These costs are independent of money loan sizes; therefore, rational lending policies can produce higher interest rates (or lower term to maturity) in low-income communities. But the premium (lower maturity) should be related to lower loan size and risk differentials.  Public policy should be directed  toward  compiling  and

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verifying an information bank which would allow lenders to search efficiently for information about risk.

Lenders providing credit to individuals specialize according to perceived risks. For example‚ finance companies specialize in high risk loans and loans with high collection costs whereas commercial banks seek lower risks and costs; therefore‚ finance companies typically charge higher interest rates than banks. This behavior has an implicit or explicit spatial dimension‚ e.g.‚ the customers are clustered in space and the lender establishes branches in proximity to a chosen market segment. Models which focus on spatial segmentation are particularly suited to dealing with mortgage lending because of the explicit spatial distribution of the collateral.

The risk-return tradeoff should be the same in all areas. Empirical studies have attempted to test for mortgage deficiency (lending behavior which discriminates against low-income and monitory areas) by relating mortgage terms (interest rate‚ maturity and loan-to-value ratio) or rejection rates to variables measuring borrower and neighborhood characteristics.

A model of lending within the framework of monopolistic competition across space allows the derivation of interest rates as a function of both supply-side and demand-side variables. Previous studies have recognized that mortgage deficiency can be explained by lack of demand as well as by perception of risk by lenders. But studies which include demand-side variables have not derived their estimating equations from profit and utility maximization.

Spatial variations in mortgage lending are a function of: 1) loan administration costs and 2) the costs of search for localized information about risk. Both costs are independent of money amount of loan demand‚ where loan demand is the average loan size times the number of loans. Revenues‚ on the other hand‚ are directly proportional to demand; therefore, neighborhoods with large demand can cover costs with lower rates.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

1) Управление кредитом;  

2) процентная ставка; 

3) соотношение риска и доходности;   

4) соотношение цены товара к сумме кредита;   

5) отсутствие спроса.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Costs‚ determinants‚ interest;

2) the‚ these, this;

3) and‚ of‚ with;

4) according‚ lending‚ measuring;

5) banks‚ customers, variables.

 

Section 4

Text

Municipal Services

The municipal public works function is to efficiently maintain public parks, roads, sidewalks, storm water drainage, the water distribution system, sewage collection system, and solid waste collection and disposal.

The negative impact of our current growth upon the environment will worsen if the status quo continues. Development affects our wildlife and natural open space corridors, wetlands, and shorelines, forcing wildlife out of natural feeding areas, and closing shellfish harvesting areas.

Unchecked growth can lead to a degradation of the natural environment, higher dependence upon the automobile, increased greenhouse gas emissions, and a loss of neighbourhood and community  character.  A coordinated planning can reduce the impact

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 of development on the environment by directing growth to compact centres and reducing the amount of land used in development.

Municipal services are much more expensive to provide when development is dispersed. While there is currently a sufficient supply of piped water to meet our needs for the next several decades, this is not necessarily the case in all areas relying on private well water. Some of these areas are already experiencing water shortages and more problems are likely to develop if we do not take adequate water supply into account in determining where to build new subdivisions.

The coordinated planning strategies of municipal services provide

many specific benefits over continuing with the current development pattern. These benefits are all interlinked. Improved settlement patterns reduce environmental degradation. Reduced environmental degradation improves economic opportunities for tourism, resource use, and protects quality of life. The potential benefit of planning to each of these sectors of society is outlined in more detail below.

Environmental :

• Protection of natural areas through connected parks and corridors;

• reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through transportation planning;

• more land left in natural state because less land is consumed for residential development.

Economic :

• Identification and protection of industrial sites;

• long-term financial planning;

• clarity to investors and developers;

• provision of an adequate supply of business/industrial park lands;

• protection of tourism assets, such as heritage and culture, and outdoor recreation areas.

Transportation :

• Improved access to employment centres;

• improved use of the existing transportation network through reducing congestion and improving transit use;

• reduced costs and improved services through the integration of the settlement pattern with transportation planning.

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Community:

• Promotion of walkable, mixed-use communities where people can be more active in their daily lives;

• a foundation for improved urban and community/neighbourhood design by outlining design guidelines;

• affordable housing for all levels of income/employment, close to major employment centres;

• growth areas of sufficient size to easily accommodate the projected demand for new housing, while supporting the goals of cost effective and environmentally sustainable growth.

Service:

• More people will have greater access to improved services at a reduced cost;

• a much higher percentage of homes on piped services than under the base case;

• faster average police response times and more people living within five minutes of a fire station.

Financial:

• The ability to anticipate what infrastructure is required, where and when based on a known plan;

• the acquisition of strategic parcels of land while they are still available and the scheduling of construction projects in an orderly cycle;

• by encouraging the right density in proposed developments and reducing the dispersion and distance between communities.

 

Exercises

Circle the Odd Word Out.

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     1) Collection‚ corridor‚ current;

2) benefit‚ developer, investor;

3) growth‚ land‚ parcel;

4) road‚ storm water drainage‚ water supply;

   5) can‚ develop, need.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

1) Общественная земля;  

2) городские учреждения; 

3) городские и пригородные районы;   

4) участок земли, предоставленный землевладельцем для общественного использования;   

5) незастроенная территория.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Agencies‚ objectives‚ parks;

2) development‚ fauna, zone;

3) and‚ between‚ over;

4) additional‚ future‚ value;

5) establish‚ permit‚ preserved.

 

Text

Water Resources

Water, a limited and precious resource, is one of highly valued environmental assets. Protection of this resource for potable waters supply, wildlife habitat, recreational enjoyment, and aesthetic value is important. The protection of this resource is going through land use control and retention of those features that regulate water flow, mitigate   flooding,   reduce   water   pollution  and  protect  ecological

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functions.

The protection of the watersheds designated for municipal water supply is a matter of regional importance. The land uses permitted within these watersheds should not threaten water quality.

  Low-density residential, conservation related uses and resource activities may be undertaken in some of these watersheds without having adverse effects on water quality. Currently, land use activities are regulated under existing land use by-laws leading to a wide variation in the range of permitted land uses in the conservation zones of each community.

Wetlands and other watercourses are vital components of the hydrological cycle and affect the quality and quantity of groundwater. They are natural filters for removing sediment, contaminants and excessive nutrients which are drawn up by the vegetation and settle out naturally before entering groundwater. They absorb peak stormwater flows, reducing the risk of flooding downstream while offseting groundwater extraction to reduce the risk of wells running dry. Wetlands also provide habitat for fish and wildlife and provide opportunities for education and research. Moreover, wetlands are also unsuitable for development as they pose a hazard for the stability of structures, but they do enhance the overall aesthetics of a community. The protection of wetlands is therefore essential.

Overall, the municipality’s elevated consumption has mainly been attributed to the following:

1) water lost through leakage within the system due to the age and materials present; 2) continuous tap running in the winter to avoid freezing; 3) consumer use is not metered; 4) lawn irrigation.

The water distribution system also has pressure problems, ranging from excessive pressure in some sections of the municipality, to below the required minimums in others. The excess or lack of pressure, along with line sizing and the lack of looping, causes problems with ability of the system to meet minimum requirements necessary to maintain adequate flow to fire hydrants.

 

Exercises

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Flooding‚ risk‚ water;

2) ecological‚ precious‚ resource;

3) filters‚ has‚ sections;

4) lost‚ meet‚ threaten;

5) permit‚ pollution‚ protect.

 

Text

Sewage

Residential communities will be serviced by communal on-site sewage disposal systems which are not serviced with municipal wastewater and water distribution systems. Provincial regulations allow for communal on-site sewage disposal systems, subject to approval of a management plan. It must contain measures to ensure land owners are responsible for the maintenance of these systems.

  Malfunctioning  on-site  sewage  disposal  systems  cause bacteria

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and other contaminants to enter groundwater and surface water which may pose health risks and cause environmental degradation. Contamination has resulted in closures to swimming and has increased

the eutrophication process of lakes and estuaries. People must protect

the environment by undertaking an on-site sewage disposal system inspection program and to require homeowners to install devices which can extend the life of, or improve the performance of on-site systems.

The risk of inadequate performance of on-site sewage disposal systems in areas which are serviced with a central water supply is of grave concern to the society. There is a higher degree of risk of on-site sewage disposal system failure in areas serviced with central water because the unlimited source of water can cause hydraulic overloading.

Regular maintenance would reduce the risk of failure. This might be achieved by adopting a by-law that requires regular system maintenance of private on-site sewage disposal systems or by establishing Wastewater Management Districts in which funds are collected from owners within the district for system maintenance. Financing for system maintenance might also be included in the cost of providing central water.

 

Exercises

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Not‚ of‚ with;

2) central, communal‚ contamination;

3) and‚ are‚ be;

4) sewage‚ subject‚ systems;

5) adopting‚ overloading‚ undertaking.

 

Text

Solid Waste

  Prior to amalgamation, an Integrated Resource Management Strategy was adopted by all four municipal units. The Strategy is comprised of a number of components which must be implemented including reducing waste, recycling, reusing waste materials, composting and managing construction and demolition waste.

To facilitate the safe production, distribution and use of compost material, guidelines have been adopted for establishing and operating commercial, municipal, and industrial composting facilities and for the testing and classifying of the finished compost product. All composting facilities, except for personal composting operations, are required to obtain a composting permit from the Province and each facility must satisfy the requirements of the composting guidelines.

To support the waste management strategy, composting operations are permitted in a number of zones, under secondary planning strategies and land use by-laws, subject to locational criteria contained within the applicable land use by-laws and compliance with provincial guidelines.

The following objectives of the Integrated Resource Management Strategy: to maximize recycling of waste, increase economic activity and value added processing, provide for proper disposal of waste that cannot be recycled, and minimize impacts from transfer, processing and disposal operations.

 

Exercises

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Be‚ in‚ is;

2) testing, the‚ transfer;

3) and‚ obtain‚ use;

4) a‚ the‚ under;

5) operations‚ strategy‚ zones.

 

Section 5

URBAN AREAS MANAGEMENT

Text

Urban Management

The targets of the urban management can be summarized as follows:

a) to define major gaps and weaknesses in the management procedures of urban systems,  with  focus on environmental and health

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protection; b) to propose tools and strategies for an improved sustainable management of European urban areas.

 Key to the work is the definition of “urban system” based on the concept of cities operating as complex ‘systems’. These “urban systems” support an ensemble of functions which interact with each other and influence the physical development of the city and its surrounding area.

  What is Urban Management:

• It is a process through which the sustainable development of urban areas, their immediate environs and the regions within which they are located may be secured.

• It will improve ecological conditions in order to promote a healthy urban environment.

• It will minimize the negative impacts of urban areas on ecological cycles at all levels.

• It focuses upon the preservation of the natural environment within its social and economic context, recognizing the interrelated nature of the social, economic and environmental.

• It requires the development of the organizational structures and arrangements which enable integrated policy approaches to urban problems.

• It is founded on an integrated view of the state of the urban environment by using the best possible available information.

• It uses the best available technologies and the most suitable approaches and tools which meet the specific needs of urban areas.

• It is based on an open and inclusionary decision-making process which involves the participation of stakeholders, including citizens and other interest groups.

• It builds on former knowledge which should therefore be specified as a “state of the art” to ensure that new policy approaches learn from past performance.

• It develops a culture of learning, understanding and respect within organizations and amongst individuals involved in the processes of sustainable development policy making.

• It recognizes the need for long term vision in policy making and for the need to secure equitable and just policy outcomes.

• It is  based  on the precautionary  principle and on the integration

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of environment into the other policies.

• It is based on a continuing cycle of problem analysis, planning and programming, implementation and evaluation (monitoring).

 

Exercises

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) City‚ organization‚ urban;

2) areas, development‚ requires;

3) an‚ in‚ the;

4) be‚ can‚ is;

5) arrangements, citizens‚ outcomes.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1)  План ведения учётной документации;  

  2) подробное описание настоящей деятельности; 

 3) организация местного самоуправления; 

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  4) писаное право;   

  5) процедурное (методическое) руководство .

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) When‚ which, whole;

2) encourage, may‚ must;

3) evidence‚ manual‚ plan;

4) Checklist‚ RKP‚ State Records Office;

5) branches, employees‚ parts.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Развитие городских и сельских районов;  

  2) применяемость показателей; 

  3) процесс текущего планирования;   

   4) совокупность данных;   

  5) сравнение плановой производительности.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Agricultural‚ land, urban;

2) planners, resources‚ services;

3) MCA‚ MCA-design‚ MCA-scheme;

4) an‚ the‚ these;

5) decision, controlling‚ monitoring.

 

Text

Project Management (Part I)

 Project management is the application of relevant logic and tools to planning, directing, and controlling a temporary endeavor. Almost all companies encounter the need for project management at some point.  The  need  may  arise  for a new physical plant, an expansion of

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office space, or a move to a new location. Reengineering may suggest a change in processes, with an accompanying equipment rearrangement and retraining to ensure the effectiveness of the change. The present-day speed of technology change often forces companies to adopt new hardware and software to stay current. Softer issues, such as the implementation of quality programs, also are within the project management purview. While some organizations specialize in projects, others may require project management skills only occasionally to effect a change, either physical or sociological in nature, from the norm.

    Defining a Project. A project is typically defined as a set of interrelated activities having a specific beginning and ending, and leading to a specific objective. Probably the most important concept in this definition is that a project is intended as a temporary endeavor, unlike ongoing, steady state operations. Secondary is the uniqueness of the output.

 To ensure that a project is temporary, it is necessary to define the ending explicitly. The outputs of the project, or deliverables, may be tangible (a new heating system) or intangible (a retrained workgroup), but in either case should be defined in measurable terms (completed installation or documented level of expertise).

 Each project requires specific definition of its goals. In a training project example, the project manager may be given responsibility for identifying and implementing a training system that will enhance productivity by 15 percent; in this case, the project is not complete until the 15 percent goal is reached. If instead the project is to implement a previously identified training program, known to achieve excellent results, then the project is finished when the trainees achieve the test scores known to correlate with a specified level of improvement in productivity. At this point, the project manager has achieved the deliverable, as measured in specific terms; the project is a success. Whether or not the desired improvement in productivity follows is outside the scope of the project.

  Obviously, it behooves the project manager to have a well-defined scope for the project. The more nebulous the assignment, the more the project is subject to “scope-creep,” or the tendency for the project to acquire  additional duties.  A “statement of work” document

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or charter, outlining the relevant specifications of deliverables, helps to keep a project clearly defined. Once the work is completely specified, the requisite activities can be identified and assigned.

 The work breakdown structure (WBS) is one of the tools used by project managers to ensure that all activities have been included in planning. By numbering the project “1.0.” the implication is that this is the first project for the company; subsequent projects would be numbered sequentially.

 In the marketing field, subsequent product rollouts can learn from the initial product introduction. To the extent that the project is repetitive, the planning process, WBS, and cost estimates can provide a valuable template for future projects.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Управление проектами;  

  2) увеличение офисных площадей; 

  3) аппаратное и программное обеспечение;   

  4) временная попытка;   

  5) чётко определённые границы.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) May‚ more, move;

2) location, projects‚ uniqueness;

3) in‚ to‚ with;

4) capabilities‚ changes‚ current;

5) assignment, present-day‚ scope-creep.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Календарное планирование проектов;  

  2) метод критического пути; 

  3) завершение проекта;   

  4) программа оценки и контроля проекта;   

  5) среднее квадратическое отклонение.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Control‚ CPM, PERT;

2) more important‚ the greatest‚ the longest;

3) a‚ the‚ of;

4) completion‚ cost‚ critical;

5) advantages, estimates‚ predecessors.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Вынужденные ресурсы;  

  2) сверхурочное время; 

  3) система нумерации;   

  4) проект, осуществляемый собственными силами;   

  5) руководитель проекта.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Actions‚ expenses‚ measures;

2) hefty‚ responsibility‚ typically;

3) are‚ as‚ is;

4) and‚ at‚ by;

5) best-qualified, full-time‚ system.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1) Проектная интеграция;  

  2) определённые сроки; 

  3) этап жизненного цикла;   

  4) контроль факторов риска;   

  5) управление страхованием.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Environment‚ idea‚ justification;

2) a‚ are‚ is;

3) can‚ change‚ control;

4) manage‚ may‚ must;

5) generically, liability‚ possibility.

 

Section 6

MONITORING AND SECURITY OF

URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1) Повседневная эксплуатация;  

  2) степень воздействия на окружающую среду; 

  3) широкая популярность;   

  4) общий мониторинг;   

  5) деловой подход.

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Control‚ monitoring‚ process;

2) millions‚ perspectives‚ year;

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3) for‚ the‚ over;

4) benefit‚ model‚ pattern;

5) appreciation, nature‚ water.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1) Природные ресурсы ;  

  2) природный газ; 

  3) неживая материя;   

  4) бокситовая руда;   

  5) условия инвестирования.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Mineral‚ oil, water;

2) animal‚ gas‚ plant;

3) gold‚ iron, oil;

4) recognize‚ require‚ resource;  

5) already, easily‚ supply.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1) Оперативная информация;  

  2) разработка методики; 

  3) изделия их древесины;   

  4) учёт (инвентаризация) леса;   

  5) потребление лесоматериалов.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

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  1) Forest‚ inventory, wood;

2) area‚ method‚ territory;

3) a‚ an, and;

4) capacity‚ purpose‚ volume;  

5) assess, data‚ indicators .

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Бытовое использование;  

  2) сельскохозяйственный рост; 

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    3) чёткое определение целей;   

  4) питьевая вода;   

  5) дренажный бассейн.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) 2.97‚ 6.5, 2006;

2) river‚ scarcity‚ water;

3) supply, usually‚ variety;

4) includes‚ noted‚ requires;  

5) that, the‚ these.

 

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Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Минеральные ресурсы;  

  2) концептуальная основа; 

  3) общественные учреждения;   

  4) планировка ландшафта;   

  5) разработка недр.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Describes‚ foundations, services;

2) availability‚ commercially‚ quality;

3) of, the‚ under;

4) investment‚ mine‚ time;  

5) earth, landscape‚ stream.

 

Section 7

TOWN-PLANNING CADASTRE

Text

Town-Planning Documentation

Documents of town-planning include schemes of town planning of the country, constituent entities of the country, municipal entities, and general plans of settlements and urban districts.

 Town planning is an instrument with the help of which stable development of territories, development of engineering, transport, and social infrastructures for long term is provided.
Town-planning Code imposes ban for power authorities on taking decisions about reservation, transition, and withdrawal of lands without approved documents of town planning.
Documents of town planning shall be operatively developed in order to  realize  powers  of  authorities, and to achieve complex economical

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development of territories and increase of their investment attractiveness.
      Preparation of drafts of the documents for land use planning are is carried out on the base of: 1) results of engineer research; 2) federal, regional and local programs in sphere of state, economic, ecologic, social, cultural and national development; 3) documents for land use planning for other levels; 4) proposals of interested persons.

Basic services

• Development of projects of schemes for land use planning of the country  in the sphere of federal transport development, lines of communication, information and telecommunication, national defense and security, energetic development, development of Special Protected Natural Areas, protection of land,  which is subject of risk of

emergency situations, development of space activities.
      • Development of separate parts of projects of schemes for land use planning and general plans for settlement (urban districts), including: 1) carrying out of the complex analysis of all factors, which influence the development of the territory (economy, investment and resource potential, demography, ecology, social conditions, risk of emergency situations), making forecasts concerning territory development for long-term, medium-term and short-term prospects; 2) preparation of concept of town-planning development on the base of development forecast for economic, investment, and demographic potential; 3) preparation of the economic and/or investment concept of territory development; 4) development of a system of activities directed on protection and safe-keeping of the natural environment; 5) development of the statement of the land use planning, including goals and tasks of the land use planning and also the list of activities directed on the land use planning with an indication of order of their execution; 6) development of the plan of the scheme realization for land use planning, including prior activities, their costs, terms, and proposals concerning possible source of funds; 7) development of maps (schemes) as a part of the scheme of land use planning.
     • Preparation of land use recommendations and of city and village property development.
     • Development of general plans for city and village settlement.

 

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Exercises

Phrases in the text.

    1) Градостроительные схемы;  

  2) сохранение земли; 

  3) документация по землеустройству;   

  4) развитие государства;   

  5) составление прогнозов.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Long-term, medium-term, town-planning;

2) development‚ map‚ scheme;

3) planning‚ potential‚ preparation;

4) estimate‚ forecast‚ provide;  

5) prior, project‚ property.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Современная система;  

  2) обычный процесс; 

  3) специальный алгоритм;   

  4) исходные файлы;   

  5) неприятное свойство (программы).

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Modern‚ old‚ up-to-date;

2) be, done, is;

3) area, interaction, region;

4) must, should, take;  

5) file, operation, user.

 

Text

Document Mapping

     There are ‘levels’ of documentation. In general terms we have the description of documentation in levels or tiers. The top tiers normally guide the content and focus of the bottom tiers. In short, each successive lower tier is dependent upon the upper tier which defines it. This is said to be a ‘Flow Down’ of requirements. Higher level documents normally cite lower level documents. These citations are important  as  they form a ‘trail’ which can  be  followed.  The top

level documents tend to be general and to some extent vague while the lower level documents provide increasing detail. Sometimes the reverse also happens – lower level documents cite higher level documents internally. There is controversy as to whether this is ‘good’ practice. In any case, requirements do not flow up. Document mapping is more important now than ever as mature companies shift towards interdisciplinary (cross-functional) communication and operation. The old way was for departments to ‘pass off’ to another department. The new way causes everyone to be involved. In short, the rise of the importance of Teams requires documentation to be more integrated and consistent – and thus the need for control is greater. This is also the reason for the ‘review’ requirement.

Document Tiers & Classes

     • It is uncommon to find ‘Pure’ documents. That is to say, it is not very often you find a document which one can clearly define as ‘only’ Tier I or Tier II or Tier III. In almost all cases there is some cross over. A good example is a Tier III document which becomes a Tier IV document. In this case we have a document which is a Tier III Procedure with some places which will eventually be filled with data - which will then make it a Record (Tier IV).

     • The idea of a defined border and thus a pure document is fine, but is seldom actually seen. Normally the closest you will come is with the Quality Systems Manual. A QSM will normally be the ‘purest’ document you will find within any given system.

     • Purity is to some degree a function of company size. A company with only 20 to 50 employees with simple processes will generally have little need for ‘pure’ structure. The necessity of structure   in   very   large   companies   necessitates  a   more  defined

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documentation structure in large part due to necessary overall complexity.

      • Also consider the idea of document classes. Classes may include production documents, engineering documents, Human Resources documents, maintenance documents, etc. From this we should understand there are usually several classes of documents in any given tier.

      • Document classes are related to document tiers. In most companies  there are multiple  document ‘classes’.  These  classes  are

always Tier II or lower.

       Mapping internal documents is: 1) verify internal reference documents exist and that the names and numbers ‘make sense’; 2) verify that the link subject matter makes sense and that requirements flow down; 3) find where the document fits in the QS 9000 line item matrix; 4) examine matrix for redundancy.

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Развитые компании;  

  2) давний способ; 

  3) увеличение значимости;   

  4) хороший пример;   

  5) техническая документация.

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Good‚ higher‚ lower;

2) a, be, is;

3) find, happens, say;

4) redundancy, reference, require;  

5) maintenance, number‚ structure.

 

Text

Geology and Urban Cadastre

      Geology, environment, cadastre, urban sprawl, – these stimulating, often controversial, and occasionally inflammatory words have been in our working vocabulary for a number of years. Common usage of these words has increased with people's growing awareness of their physical environment as they occupy more and more land.

      As we advance our knowledge of the environment, and simultaneously inhabit available space at an alarming rate, urban cadastre becomes a necessity if we are to live in harmony with our surroundings.

      Cadastral problems are not caused by, or solved by, one profession alone. Specialists in many fields will have to tax their abilities and work in cooperation toward a common goal before we can develop a functional cadastral program. Those who usually make the decisions on urban cadastre – legislators, developers, architects, realtors, and planners – rarely have geologists among their numbers. But, why should we include geologists or consider geology?

      The reason is found in the key word land. Land is not limited in its connotations to acreage for home sites, a location for urban expansion, or any other single purpose. Land includes the surface of the earth and its natural resources. Natural resources are not necessarily contained only on the surface but in the substance of the land, and thus land includes the dimension of depth to its meaning. In a broader sense, land can be defined as a part of our physical environment.

      How many of us have considered what the physical environment is? If not animal or vegetable, it must be mineral substance. Again, we must be speaking solely of inorganic matter, the whole earth. Geology is the science of the earth: its surface, its atmosphere, its interior, its resources, and therefore should be considered fundamental to urban cadastre.

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      A major problem in planning for good urban cadastre involves the lack of adequate input of applied geologic principles. True, geologic information is available for cadastre, and some reference to the geologic factors is occasionally found in zoning ordinances. The difficulties arise, however, when there are no qualified people to interpret the available geologic information. That is, much of the geologic data available is not in a form to be easily understood by the non-geologist planner.

      There are two approaches that hold promise in solving this dilemma. The first would be to have geologists on planning boards, as construction project-code examiners, and as legislators. An alternative to the first solution would at least require the inspection, endorsement, and interpretation of urban cadastre proposals by qualified geologic consultants. A second method is to have geologists prepare pertinent geologic information in such a form that it can be interpreted by non-geologists. Realistically, a compromise of the two methods would be the more beneficial and functional solution.

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

   1) Физическая среда;  

  2) городской кадастр; 

  3) общая цель;   

  4) участок гнезда;   

  5) геологические факторы.

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Awareness‚ words‚ years;

2) developers, numbers, realtors;

3) earth, goal, land;

4) data, information, science;  

5) found, involve‚ hold.

 

Text

Ecological State of Areas

      There is a number of striking parallels between the challenges that lead to the emergence of welfare states during the 20th century, and the contemporary challenges presented by accelerating global environmental problems. Chief among these similarities is that both welfare states and ecological states are faced with the task of mitigating negative market externalities. The welfare state took on gradually increasing responsibilities for mitigating social and human costs of the market economy. States are gradually taking increasing responsibilities for addressing environmental problems, and are developing more encompassing environmental policy portfolios in order to mitigate the effects of the market’s environmental externalities.

      Price signals on the market do not fully reflect environmental costs associated with production and transportation of market goods, which in turn creates unsustainable consumption patterns. The trick is therefore to internalize environmental cost, i.e. to make producers and consumers pay the full price for the environmental goods and services they are utilizing. Within environmental economics, this has often been addressed as a question of getting the incentives right, either in terms of correctly valuing the environmental costs or as a question of stimulating a certain frequency of the desired behavior  among actors.

    The main task confronting the ecological state of areas can be defined as the task of producing and maintaining environmental public goods. By extension, the extent to which a given state can be considered to be ecological is determined by its capacity for producing

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environmental collective goods. This statement is however too broad to be analytically useful as it overshadows important dissimilarities between environmental problems stemming from the fact that there are many different types of environmental public goods. A basic distinction can be made between provision problems and appropriation problems of securing a public good. Provision problems has to do with problems of securing contributions to a public good, such as building, financing, and  maintaining an irrigation  system or a waste recycling system in a city. Appropriation problems are problems related to the use of limited resources, such as withdrawals of water from a ground water basin, timber from a forest, or fish from a fish stock. If provision problems are not solved the public good will not be realized, and if appropriation problems are left unchecked the public good will become depleted whenever the resource is less than infinite. Many environmental problems can be seen as being both provisioning and appropriation problems. For example, air pollution can be seen as a problem of implementing and maintaining a system for monitoring and sanctioning of emissions, or as a case of controlling withdrawals from a limited resource of clean air.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1) Проблемы охраны окружающей среды;  

  2) модель потребления; 

  3) экологически чистые товары;   

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  4) экологическое состояние;   

  5) система орошения.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Are‚ is‚ the;

2) economics, environmental, extent;

3) not, on, with;

4) consumer, market, problem;  

5) controlling, maintaining‚ monitoring.

 

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Text

Zoning regulations

     Zoning regulations are the most common regulatory tool used by local governments throughout the country to manage land use and development. Zoning evolved out of urban reform movements of the early twentieth century to address overcrowding and blight and to protect existing residential and commercial neighborhoods from encroaching development.

 Zoning ordinances divide a town, city, village, or county into separate residential, commercial, and industrial districts, thereby preserving the desirable characteristics of each type of setting. These laws generally limit dimensions in each zone. Many regulations require certain building features and limit the number and location of parking and loading areas and the use of signs. Other regulations provide space for schools, parks, or other public facilities.

 Zoning helps city planners bring about orderly growth and change. It controls population density and helps create attractive, healthful residential areas. In addition, zoning helps assure property owners and residents that the characteristics of nearby areas will remain stable.

     Zoning is used to regulate the location, type, and density of development  within  a  community  through  the delineation of one or

more zones or zoning districts, as depicted on a zoning map. There is no “right” way to craft or organize a zoning bylaw; local regulations are as varied as the communities that adopt them. Zoning regulations usually include the following, in some form:

     Statutory Authorizations, including adoption and effective dates, applicability and use for local regulation, and bylaw amendment and

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“severability” provisions that apply in the event that portions of the regulation are deemed by the courts to be invalid.

     Zoning Districts, including lists of uses allowed within each zoning district (for example, permitted uses requiring only administrative review and conditional uses requiring additional board approval), related dimensional and density standards (for example, minimum lot size, frontage, setback, and coverage requirements), and any other standards that are specific to each district.

    General or Supplemental Regulations that apply to all uses, as applicable. These often include standards for nonconformities, access and parking, performance, lighting, signs, and so on.

    Use Standards that apply only to specified uses as allowed within one or more zoning districts to include, for example, standards for homebased businesses, telecommunications facilities, extraction operations, and industrial and mobile home parks.

    Development Review Procedures, including the types of review procedures adopted for local use and related standards and application requirements. Regulations must specify the types and sequence of review to coordinate permitting activities and also the appropriate municipal panel (the planning commission, board of adjustment, or development review board) who is authorized to conduct each type of review.

    Administrative Requirements, including municipal appointments, powers, and duties; the issuance of permits and approvals; appeals and

variances; variance requirements; hearing and notice requirements; recording requirements; and violation and enforcement provisions.

    Definitions, which should include definitions for all listed uses and for technical and legal terms. Statutory definitions, where applicable, must be used.

    Zoning Map – typically a copy of the official zoning map(s), located in    the  municipal   clerk’s   office,   that    is  adopted  and

incorporated by reference in the regulations. Boundary descriptions also may be included in the regulations or noted on or appended to the zoning map. Information should be presented so that it’s easy to find and use. A table of contents or index is helpful.  Tables – for example, zoning district or use tables – are a useful way to highlight and summarize  information.   Graphics  can  and  should  be  used  to help

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illustrate terms and definitions. Often statutory requirements are incorporated by reference. This may shorten the length of the document, but it may also leave out information that’s important for local officials, applicants, and neighbors who don’t have ready access to state statutes.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Правила зонирования (населённого пункта) ;  

  2) постановление о зонировании и использовании городских территорий; 

  3) установленные законом разрешения;   

  4) постановление местных органов;   

  5) установленные требования.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) City‚ town‚ village;

2) home, local, illocal;

3) law, length, locations;

4) district, house, zone;  

5) border, boundaries, frontier.

 

Allocation of Land Plots

     Although the system of urban development planning has changes  since past  times,  current  procedures  still  largely reflect the

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central-planning approach. In particular the process is still heavily orientated towards the use of prescriptive end-state master plans. The planning system has failed to effectively develop in a way that enables it to assure effective and efficient land use outcomes within a market-driven economy. As a result plans that do exist are outdated and/or inappropriate for the needs of modern urban areas subject to market-driven development pressures. In addition, poor planning and approval mechanisms, and tenuous linkages between the plan-making and land management processes, mean that the implementation and enforcement of plans is inadequate and ineffective.

     Underlying the sluggish pace of change in the approach to urban planning is a slow move away from the notion that the country is still responsible for implementing the master plan, i.e. that government plans, designs and builds towns and cities. Although attitudes are changing, the idea has not yet been fully embraced that implementation of plans should now mean being more responsive to private sector initiatives and needs, and planners taking a less prescriptive role in the development process.

      Another issue that the planning and land systems must address is that current legislation and regulations incorporate variable policies depending on the location of the land and the status of the urban area. There are needs to be a harmonization of planning rules and regulations.

      There are two  broad  types  of  land  allocation.  The first is the

process for land allocated at no cost to citizens under the Law on Land Allocation to Citizens. The second is for all other land allocations. The law on land allocation stipulates the criteria and procedure for implementing the policy of giving every citizen a plot of land for household uses. There are three categories of tenure for private plots, namely ‘possession’, ‘ownership’ and ‘use’. The ownership category was newly introduced by the law on land allocation in 2003.

      ‘Possession’ and ‘ownership’ are covered by prescribed procedures that result in registration of the land. Possession licences have duration of 15 to 60 years and can be extended once by 40 years. In most cases a possession license is a pre-requisite for applying for ownership, which makes ownership a two stage process. Ownership is not time-bound.  Under  the land law ‘Use’ is a category of short-term

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occupation. It follows a similar procedure to possession but does not result in any registration. Use is for 5 years and can be extended in 5-year terms.

      For land that does not come under the category of free allocation to citizens an auction or tender process is used. This covers all land in the established formal areas and large plots or plots for non-domestic use outside the formal area.

      The auction/tender system is not well designed to respond to development initiatives from the private sector. It is a supply-driven process with Government setting the pace and types of land release. It needs to be more demand-driven. The current process is also far from transparent. Although reference is supposed to be made to the urban master plan, it is evident that this does not always happen. Whilst there may be good reasons to adjust the master plan to fit new proposals, these decisions are not in the public domain.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Централизованный подход;  

  2) медленный темп; 

  3) настоящее законодательство;   

  4) градостроительная норма;   

  5) в определенных временных рамках, с четко установленными сроками.

 

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Central-planning‚ capability‚ end-state;

2) ownership, tenure‚ sector;

3) times, plan, ways;

4) approach, law‚ planner;  

5) covers, plots‚ types.

 

Section 8

Text

8.1. Recreation‚ Parks and Open Space

Park land or open space most often serves two functions: environmental enhancement or protection and recreation. If the primary purpose of open space is for the protection of people and investment from hazards, location principles should include considerations of setbacks from flood zones and prohibition of development in fire areas or on unstable hill slopes. If the purpose of open space is for the protection of natural amenities and environmental systems, then ecosystems need to be identified and standards applied to preserve plant life, water bodies, erosion, wildlife, infiltration and run-off, etc. The development of recreation on  these  spaces  should be in keeping  with  the  protection of natural

amenities and future impacts to natural environmental systems.

          The municipality should have numerous tennis courts, ball fields, a football field, a horseshoe arena, parks and playgrounds, and a luge run. Recreational facilities are often costly expenditures to construct and maintain. There are issues relating to facilities being accessible to all residents while, at the same time, preventing the expensive duplication of facilities in multiple areas. There is also the problem of the limited room on the valley floor to accommodate all land use activities, including recreational uses, so they do not conflict with one another. The adjacent forest reserve may be used to provide recreational opportunities, while helping to alleviate pressure on the municipality to provide additional land and facilities for recreation use. The challenge for the municipality is in attempting to expand

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recreational opportunities without placing harm or undue strain on the environment.

          The municipality’s urban development is basically situated in a large park-like environment. In terms of parks and open space, the municipality compares very favorably to the average park and open space planning standards.

      While some adjacent land is in a more natural state, other land is intensely developed. The provision of land for park space (or money in place of land to develop park space) is legislated, to be considered at the time of land being subdivided. The purpose of this legislation is to ensure that areas of land are provided as open space amenities as land is developed.

      If the local population continues to age, this could result in a desire for more unstructured park areas (passive parks), pathways and environmentally-themed activities such as walking/hiking, photography, fishing, nature appreciation, etc.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Незастроенная территория;  

  2) защита людей; 

  3) область, затопляемая при наводнении или при половодье;   

  4) футбольное поле;   

  5) местное население.

 

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Average‚ hundred‚ two;

2) hill, mount‚ soil;

3) from, not, to;

4) environment, location‚ place;  

5) have, legislated‚ provide.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1) Значительные изменения;  

  2) органы местного самоуправления; 

  3) городские районы;   

    4) дорожная система;   

  5) воздействие на окружающую среду.

 

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Road‚ transport‚ way;

2) assessment, estimation‚ mark;

3) municipal, major, main;

4) developments, plans‚ roadworthiness;  

5) be, both‚ was.

 

Text

City Utilities

Storm Water Utility. Stormwater is exactly what is sounds like. When it rains, or when snow melts, water that is not soaked into the ground may go directly into a storm drain and straight to a nearby river or creek. The stormwater system contains sewer lines, ditches, open channels and drains.

Stormwater Utility has responsibility for operating, maintaining

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and improving an extensive system of open waterways and enclosed storm sewer lines. This system exists to collect the rainwater that runs off yards, roofs, streets and parking lots and carry it away from neighborhoods to area rivers. Without a stormwater collection system every rainstorm could turn into a flood.

      The utility must ensure that the city meets state and federal requirements for improving the quality of stormwater runoff. Because most stormwater receives no treatment before it goes into a stream, lake or river it is important that we keep as many pollutants as possible out of stormwater runoff.

     The Stormwater Utility has its budget. This money is spent: 1)   repairing, replacing and improving the stormwater drainage system; 2) cleaning drainage inlets and catch basins; 3) maintaining swales and ditches; 4) providing higher water quality standards to the residents of the city; 5) monitoring and controlling pollution levels in stormwater that is returned to the rivers.

It is important to our environment that we all work to reduce the amount of pollution carried by stormwater.

  Combined Sewer Overflow. Some cities collect both rainwater runoff and sanitary wastewater in the same set of sewer pipes. These are called "combined sewers". Sometimes when it rains, combined sewers do not have enough capacity to carry all the rainwater and wastewater cannot accept all of the combined flow. In this situation, the combined wastewater overflows from the collection system into the nearest body of water‚ for example rivers‚ creating a combined sewer overflow.

Combined sewer systems are wastewater collection systems designed to carry sanitary sewage (domestic, commercial, and industrial wastewater) and surface drainage from rainfall or snowmelt in a single set of pipes. During periods of wet weather the total flow can exceed the capacity of the Water Pollution Control (sewage treatment) Plant. When this occurs, the untreated or partially treated Combined Sewer Overflows are discharged into rivers and streams.

       

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Дренажная (ливневая) вода;  

 2) дождевой водосток; 

  3) водоотводящая часть осушительной системы;   

    4) ливневые стоки;   

  5) бытовые сточные воды.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Flood‚ rain‚ snow;

2) budget, river‚ water;

3) stormwater, streams, system;

4) collection, industrial‚ rainfall;  

5) accept, collected‚ turn.

 

Section 9

MUNICIPAL MANAGEMENT

Text

Local Government

Local government may be loosely defined as a public organization authorized to decide and administer a limited range of public policies within a relatively small territory which is a subdivision of a regional or national government. Local government is at the bottom of a pyramid of governmental institutions, with the national  government  at the top and intermediate governments (states,

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regions, provinces) occupying the middle range. Normally, local government has general jurisdiction and is not confined to the performance of one specific function or service.

  The formal structure of local government, important as it can be to the character of a system, is not the only or even the most significant determinant of the style of local government. The quality and character of a local government are determined by a multiplicity of factors – for example, national and local traditions, customary deference patterns, political pressures, party influence and discipline, bureaucratic professionalism, economic resource controls, and social organization and beliefs. That a local government is located in a nation controlled by a communist party may be an infinitely more important fact than the structural forms it has.

Paradoxically, local government in the twentieth century seems to expand  the number of functions it performs at the same time

that it faces increasing central government supervision and a narrowing of its independence. As the problems of large and complicated cities and metropolitan areas grow, at least to the extent that financial means to cope with the problems exist, the city has greatly extended its role. Cultural activities expand simultaneously with programs on housing, redevelopment, air pollution control, and the recruitment of business enterprises. Many of the most dramatic and important of these functions are financed in good part by grants-in-aid from higher level governments, thereby decreasing local discretion at least to some extent. Also the expansion occurs simultaneously with a narrowing of distances between the central government and the municipality as the means of communication develop and as areas once isolated economically and politically become an integral part of a national economy and political system. It is therefore sometimes difficult to say whether local governments in a particular nation are now more or less significant agencies of government than they were in a simpler age.

 In the case of the smaller communities there is not much doubt that increasing centralization has affected their range of discretion negatively. Although the capacity of a central government to control tends to dwindle with distance for the simple reason that remoteness prevents control, the growth of rapid communication tends to undercut

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this source of independence. Likewise, smaller communities caught up in the sprawl of metropolitan growth suddenly cease to be independent units and become entangled in the complications of overall metropolitan areas. This leads to the development of regional institutions that in some degree may supplant or at least supplement local government, and it also tends to force local officials into governing in part through negotiation with officials from higher levels of government and with those of neighboring municipalities.

Finally, it is important to note that the role of the municipal executive has grown greatly in the present century, owing to the same forces that have heightened the role of the executive in national government. The technological complexity of the problems being dealt with increases the power of the bureaucracy; and the diversity and diffusion of modern life also tend to lead to a stronger executive since, especially  in  larger cities, the chief executive seems  to  be the

only functionary capable of controlling the bureaucracy, focusing public attention on key issues, and pressuring the various actors on the city scene to respond to the challenges a city faces.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1)  Органы местного самоуправления;  

  2) значительный определяющий фактор; 

    3) органы центрального государственного управления;   

    4) муниципальные районы;   

  5) развитие областных учреждений.

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Association‚ growth‚ organization;

2) determined, has‚ is;

3) capacity, municipality, negatively;

4) doubt, local‚ significant;  

5) can, may‚ tend.

 

Text

Treasury

The Treasury has its antecedents far back in time as all governments   have   faced   the  need   to  secure   revenues.  But  the

recognizably modern Treasury has its principal roots in the late 17th and early 18th cents. Its emergence as a major organ of state was precipitated by a fairly sudden and large increase in government spending. Prior to the 20th century such an increase was invariably the result of military involvement. The increase in expenditure produced a proliferation of stratagems to pay for it. One means was, of course, new taxation, which was imposed on salt, stamps, hackney coaches, and, especially, on land. The latter was a form of embryonic income tax in that it levied a fixed quota on each county from their landed ratepayers. New customs and excise duties were introduced and there were increases in those already in operation. Such an expansion in taxation required a bureaucracy to organize the operation of the revenue system and this, in turn, needed to be managed. This became the task of the Treasury. The Exchequer and Audit Department Act of 1866 established the practice of consolidating the annual tax proposals into a single Finance Bill. This created the first effective machinery for a retrospective annual audit of government spending, and effectively established the Treasury as custodian of financial propriety. It did not exercise control at that time because hostility to centralization was widespread. But it meant that the role of the Treasury was ‘cast in a narrow mould – essentially negative, harnessed to a defective concept of economy and a static concept of government. They meant adjudication, not inspiration; parsimony not efficiency; conservation, not growth.’  This  perception was reinforced

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by two major concerns of 19th-century policy, elimination of the

national debt and the preservation of free trade, both of which required tight fiscal control.
        As government involvement in economic affairs increased in the 20th century together with the massive increase in the ratio of public spending to national income, so the role and influence of the Treasury became extremely important. Indeed, the most obvious manifestations of financial probity, including the control of public expenditure, maintenance of the exchange rate, and a tight fiscal and monetary stance to combat inflation have been persistently at the heart of the economic management strategy of the Treasury, which has always strongly favored stabilization over growth. Very often, incumbent administrations  have   adopted   the  Treasury view  and

followed policies consistent with its aims. Its close links with the city and its control over the city bank have secured the primacy of financial considerations in economic policy.

 


Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Огромный рост;  

  2) государственные расходы; 

  3) военное вмешательство;   

    4) ревизионно-контрольный отдел;   

  5) экономические отношения.

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Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) 18th‚ 20th‚ 1866;

2) control, duty‚ task;

3) an, in, of;

4) economic, fiscal‚ revenue;  

5) created, have‚ were.

 

Text

Banking

       A bank deals in money and money substitutes; it also provides a range of financial services. In a formal sense, it borrows or receives “deposits” from firms, individuals, and (sometimes) governments and,

on the basis of these resources, either makes “loans” to others or purchases securities, which are listed as “investments.” In general, it covers its expenses and earns its profits by borrowing at one rate of interest and lending at a higher rate. In addition, commissions may be charged for services rendered.

        A bank is under an obligation to repay its customers’ balances either on demand or whenever the amounts credited to them become due. For this reason, a bank must hold some cash (which for this purpose may include balances at a bankers’ bank, such as a central bank) and keep a further proportion of its assets in forms that can readily be converted into cash. It is only in this way that confidence in the banking system can be maintained. In its turn, confidence is the basis of “credit.” Provided its promises are always honored (for example, to convert notes into gold or deposit balances into cash), a bank can “create credit” for use by its customers—either by issuing additional notes or by making new loans (which in turn become new deposits). A bank is able to do this because the public believes the bank can and will without question honor these promises, which will then be accepted at their face value and circulate as money. As long as they remain outstanding, these promises continue to constitute claims against that bank and can be transferred by means of checks or other instruments from one party to another. In essence, this is what is known as “deposit banking.” With some variations, it is the accepted basis   of   commercial   banking as  practiced  in  the  modern  world.

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Indeed, deposit banking cannot be said to exist as long as the assets held by a bank consist only of cash lodged by depositors. Once the accounts of banks begin to show more deposits than cash, part of these deposits must represent loans that have been made by a banker to his customers, that is, deposits created by the banking system.

       It is more interesting, therefore, to establish why banking systems in the several countries do differ from one another, sometimes in quite material respects. The problems that face banks are much the same the world over but there is considerable variety in the solutions that are put forward to resolve them. Hence, it is in the details of organization and technique that one tends to find the differences. Yet there is a tendency for the differences to become less pronounced because of growing efficiency in international communication and the

disposition to emulate practices that have proved successful elsewhere. Those differences that survive are largely the result of influences deriving from the economic and sociopolitical environment. These similarities and differences can be discussed in terms of: (a) the structure of commercial banking systems; and (b) the varying emphases in the types of business that are done by banks in different countries.

       Although one must be careful not to oversimplify, it is possible to classify banking structures as falling within one or another of certain broad categories. For example, “unit banking” still describes fairly accurately the commercial banking arrangements that obtain over large areas in the United States, which has nearly fourteen thousand banks and not very many more bank branches. In a number of other countries it is more usual to find a small number of commercial banks, each of which operates a highly developed network of bank branches. In England and Wales, for example, only 11 banks (5 much larger than the rest) do nearly all the domestic banking business through more than 11,500 branches and agencies. Between these two extremes, there are many instances of “hybrid” systems, where the services of banks that are national in scope are supplemented by those that restrict their activities to either a region or a locality. Examples of such banking systems would be those of France and India. Although these hybrid systems are slowly changing their  character  (banks are  tending  to  become  fewer in number  and

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individually larger, often with networks of branches), so far they have remained different enough from the two other main types of banking systems to warrant separate classification.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1)  Заменители (субституты) денег;  

  2) оказываемые услуги; 

  3) дальнейшее количественное соотношение;   

    4) депозитная операция банка;   

  5) система бесфилиальных банков.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Cash‚ business‚ money;

2) customer, depositor, network;

 3) a, of, the;

4) France‚ India‚ Wales;  

5) fewer, larger‚ new.

 

Text

Public Health Service

      The Public Health Service (PHS) is the major public health component of the country. The central mission of the PHS is to protect the health of the country's population. The action plan for the PHS has been translated into the main goals: (1) increase quality and years of healthy life, and (2) eliminate health disparities.

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       There are four broad categories of action: (1) promote healthy behaviors; (2) promote healthy and safe communities; (3) improve systems for personal and public health; and (4) prevent and reduce disease and disorders. Within these four broad categories are priority areas (e.g. improve the health, fitness, and quality of life of all people through the adoption and maintenance of regular, daily physical activity), and within these priority areas are specific objectives.

       The PHS administers hundreds of grant-in-aid programs, ranging from grants to support basic laboratory research by investigators in university departments, to block grants to states for support of maternal and child health services. Many of these grant-in-aid programs have a very narrow focus, specifying in some detail the action that must be taken by grantees (e.g., a state agency), while other

grants permit greater leeway by the grantees.

       The assistant secretary for health heads the Office of Public Health and Science. In that position, he or she leads cross cutting between initiatives as identified by the secretary who is now the head of the PHS and directs the activities of the major PHS agencies. The surgeon general reports to the assistant secretary for health and is considered the nation's spokesman on public health issues. Located in the Office of Public Health and Science are important program offices supporting the work of the assistant secretary of health and coordinating various programs such as the National AIDS Program Office, the Office of International Health, the Office of Women's Health, etc. It should be noted that the Public Health Service has commissioned officers (physicians, dentists, nurses, engineers) assigned to all the PHS operating agencies.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Министерство здравоохранения;  

  2) население страны; 

  3) общественное здравоохранение;   

    4) целевая субсидия органам местного самоуправления;   

  5) государственная помощь.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Agencies‚ dentists, nurses;

2) health, mission, protect;

3) improve, reduce, translated;

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 4) and‚ are‚ is;  

5) action, location‚ position.

 

Section 10

LAND EVALUATION

Text

Land Evaluation

      These are the five types of ‘actors’ in the land evaluation process.

      1) Client: A person or organization that requests the work and will act on the basis of its results. Also called the user of the land evaluation results.

       2) Evaluator: A person who carries out the land evaluation. The evaluator must understand the concepts and methodology of and evaluation, and be able to use appropriate analytic techniques and computerized tools as necessary. The evaluator acts as the intermediary between the client and the experts. A land evaluator must have a good knowledge of natural resources and land uses, be able to think logically and systematically, be able to use computers with some facility, and, most of all, be able to communicate with clients, land-use experts,  and  land resource experts using their specialist language.

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Land evaluation is an integrative and iterative process, so the evaluator must have an open mind.

       3) Land-use expert: a person who has information about a land use or land quality, in relation to the land, for example, soil scientists, agronomists, economists, rural agents and farmers with good powers of observation. The expert must be committed to undergoing a series of interviews by the land evaluator, and later reviewing the results of the preliminary evaluation. This is not a trivial time commitment. Land-use experts usually view their area of expertise in specialist terms,   and   must  work  with   the   land   evaluator  to  express  their

knowledge within the land evaluation framework.

       4) Land resource expert: a person who has information on the land resource, for example, soil surveyors, climatologists, census takers, rural agents and farmers with good powers of observation. The expert must be prepared to explain their data to the informed outsider, in particular, its provenance, meaning, and reliability, and must be able to construct map units and data bases as required by the land evaluation computer system. The land resource expert must interpret the data as they collect it in the terms required by the land evaluator.

       Farmers or other country people are a special category of experts: often intimately familiar with land use and land qualities in a restricted area, but usually with a poor understanding of the scientific (predictive) relations underlying the observed phenomena. Their observations can provide an excellent starting point for further investigation.

      5) Stakeholders: all parties who will be affected by the results of the planning decisions taken on the basis of the land evaluation. This is usually the whole rural population of the planning area, but may include workers in related industries such as transport or food processing.

           A land evaluation exercise can be divided into twelve steps: 1) identify decision makers, objectives, and means of implementation; 2) define the spatial entities to be evaluated; 3) define the land utilization types to be evaluated; 4) define land use requirements; 5) define land characteristics; 6) identify data sources and survey if possible/necessary; 7) enter tabular data and maps; 8) build (computer) models for land evaluation; 9) compute the evaluation; 10)

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calibrate the results; 11) present the results to the users; 12) assist with project implementation. These steps certainly can contain feedback, i.e., the results of a step may suggest modifications that should be made to previous steps. There may be important feedbacks and others.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Качественная оценка земель;  

  2) эксперты по землеустройству; 

  3) предварительная оценка;   

    4) качество земли;   

  5) специалист, принимающий решения.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Client‚ evaluator, land-use expert;

2) which, who, worker;

3) agronomists, powers, scientists;

4) data‚ map‚ result;  

5) can, may‚ use.

 

Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Сельскохозяйственная земля;  

  2) луг долголетнего пользования; 

143

   3) молочный скот;   

    4) коэффициенты падения урожайности;   

  5) природные условия.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Meadows‚ objectives, pastures;

2) agriculture, cultivation, program;

3) fox, horse, sheep;

4) level‚ stage‚ yield;  

5) and, by‚ for.

 

144

Text

Evaluation of Land Parcel

       Parcel is a portion of the earth defined by a boundary. In GIS, usually a plot of land inside of which certain assigned rights apply regarding occupancy and/or use of land, air, or water. The most significant is the ownership parcel that serves as the basic land entity for defining responsibilities of the individual and governments regarding land use and occupancy.

       “Agricultural parcel” is a continuous piece of land with a single crop cultivated by a single farmer. For the Cadastre, “parcel” is a continuous piece of land belonging to a single owner. Cadastral parcels are divided in “sub-parcels” according to the different types of land uses in the same parcel. So, the concepts “agricultural parcel” and “cadastral sub-parcel” are physically similar.

       The majority of countries have adopted alternative solutions that generally exclude cadastral information, which in these countries is used for other purposes. Some countries used their conventional large scale topographic mapping for this purpose. In the process of demarcating reference parcels, in this case, current geographic features (hedges, fences etc.) and sometimes land registry information are used as ancillary data sources. This is a similar identification system to the following one. The only difference is the usage of large scale topographic mapping instead of ortho products. This method is used by   the   countries  having a  tradition  of  general   boundaries

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approach in their cadastral systems such as England.

     In this case, to identify agricultural parcels clearly, ortho imagery or ortho photos are used. In the demarcation stage, three methods are used. These are:

       – Directly identifying Agricultural Parcel.

       – Identifying Lots (or farmer block), grouping together a number  of   neighboring agricultural  parcel cultivated  by  the  same

farmer.

       – Identifying Blocks (or physical block), grouping together a number of neighboring agricultural parcels cultivated by one or several farmers and delineated by the most stable boundaries.

       Many countries have been used ortho products as the main source of information in the establishment and maintenance.

 

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Небольшой участок земли;  

  2) сельскохозяйственный участок земли; 

  3) единственный владелец;   

    4) географические особенности;   

  5) топографическая карта.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Land‚ parcel, water;

2) a, as, by;

3) that, their, these;

4) following, mapping‚ neighboring;  

5) Block‚ Cadastre, England.

 

Text

Land Evaluation

          The FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) method is not a ready-made, detailed land evaluation scheme. Instead, it is a flexible framework supplemented by guidelines to create specific evaluations.

       1. Framework: how to carry out an evaluation exercise, including how to select land uses to evaluate and evaluation (map) units. This is contained in the Framework (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1976).

       2. Guidelines (directives): what factors (land qualities) to consider when evaluating for certain general kinds of land uses (e.g. forestry), how to evaluate these qualities. These have been published as Guidelines (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1991).

        3. Evaluations: specific evaluation exercises. These are designed separately for each problem and area, by the local land evaluator (1992).

    These are mostly in reaction to earlier (pre-1973) methods.

        1. Land suitability is assessed and classified with respect to specified kinds of uses (as opposed to a single scale of ‘goodness’ of land).

       2. The suitability classes are defined by economic criteria (as opposed to purely physical criteria; in practice this has rarely been followed).

       3. A multidisciplinary approach is required (in practice, not just soil surveyors).

      4. Evaluations should take into account the physical, economic, social and political context of the area concerned (i.e., don’t evaluate for impossible uses).

       5. Suitability refers to land use on a sustained basis (i.e., can’t deplete the resource base, in practice this is rarely achievable, and this

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principle is being weakened).

       6. ‘Evaluation’ involves comparison of two or more alternative kinds of use.

The following three key points distinguish the FAO Framework

from previous land classification systems:

       Evaluate separately for each specific use, then compare. There is not one scale of ‘goodness’ of land from ‘excellent’ to ‘poor’; instead one must speak of very suitable through unsuitable land for a specific use. There are no bad land areas, only inappropriate land uses. Many examples of perfectly suited land areas for one use which are extremely unsuited for another. E.g. intensive semi-mechanized irrigated rice areas for urban expansion.

       Land should be evaluated in both physical and economic terms. Ideally, both a physical and an economic land evaluation are undertaken. A physical land evaluation is based only on physical factors that determine whether a land utilization types (LUT) can be implemented on a land area, and the nature and severity of physical limitations or hazards. An economic land evaluation is based on some economic measure of net benefits, should a given LUT be implemented on a given land area.

      The physical evaluation reveals the nature of limitations and hazards, which is useful information to the land manager; however, the economic evaluation reveals the expected economic benefits, which in general drive the decision-making process, or for successful land use.

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

  1)  Продовольственная и сельскохозяйственная организация ООН;  

  2) экономический критерий; 

  3) многосторонний подход;   

    4) классификация земель по системе «Службы мелиорации и сохранения плодородия»;   

  5) земельная площадь.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) FAO‚ Guidelines, LUT;

2) by, is, out;

3) assessor, evaluation, evaluator;

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 4) are, classified‚ take;  

5) economic‚ financial, hazard.

 

Text

Land Characteristics

       Since land qualities, by definition, can’t be directly measured in routine survey, their severity levels or single-factor ratings for each evaluation unit must be inferred from one or more diagnostic land characteristics. Diagnostic land characteristics (LC) are the land characteristics that will be used to evaluate the land qualities (LQ). They must be measurable at the appropriate scale, and well-related to the land quality (which is why they are called ‘diagnostic’). There may be a choice of land characteristics, in which case the simplest or cheapest to determine should be used.

       For example, to evaluate the land qualities ‘erosion hazard’, we may choose as diagnostic land characteristics ‘slope’, ‘rainfall intensity’, ‘topsoil particle-size distribution’, and ‘topsoil mineralogy’.

      Land indices (formerly and confusingly called parametric indices) are point systems with each diagnostic LC contributing points to an overall value,  which  then  is  classified  into  a  severity level. It

differs from empirical statistical methods in that classified LCs can be used,  and   that  there is  rarely  an  empirical   statistical  basis  to  the

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combination.

       The indices may be additive (i.e., add up the individual point values) or multiplicative (i.e., multiply the individual point values, and then normalize) or a combination of arbitrary arithmetic operations, resulting in a ‘continuous’ value (which will in general be an integer only for additive indices), which is then classified into severity levels by arbitrary cut-off points. For example, on a scale of 0-100, 80-100 could be classified as ‘slight limitation’, 60-80 as ‘moderate limitation’, etc. Note that there is no objective basis for this classification nor for the original point system.

      Land indices can in some degree compensate for problems with matching tables. Typically, the same table is used, but each row is assigned a point value, and each cell is worth a certain number of points. Each diagnostic LC is rated separately, and the points are added, multiplied, or combined according to some other rule. This allows the evaluator tremendous flexibility (and subjectivity). Interactions can still not be accounted for in a purely additive or multiplicative index, since each row is evaluated separately, but it is possible to use cross-products of point values for some LCs along with sums for others to get some approximation of interaction effects.

      Land indices are not much used to estimate LQs, more to go directly from LCs to suitability as in earlier ‘parametric’ methods of land evaluation.

       Advantage: Provides a more-or-less continuous scale of the land quality, allows a large number of LCs to participate in the rating, each more-or-less weighted according to its importance.

      Disadvantage: Highly subjective, appears more precise to the casual observer than it is in fact.

      Another kind of land index (also formerly and confusingly called parametric indices) is point systems with each diagnostic LC contributing points to an overall value, which then is classified into a severity level, with the difference that the LC is given points according to its value on a continuous scale, not according to its class. It differs from empirical statistical methods in that there is rarely an empirical statistical basis to the combination.

      For example, each cm of soil depth up to 150cm can be assigned 0.2 points,  so that soil depth gives 0 to 30 points towards the

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land index; each % coarse fragments can subtract 0.1 points from a maximum of 10 points, so that coarse fragment content gives 0 to 10 points towards the land index. As in the continuous case, land characteristics are weighted by assigning them different maximum points.

     One way to determine the severity level of a land quality is to simulate it over time, using a dynamic simulation model. For example, we could estimate the land quality ‘moisture availability’ from time series of the diagnostic LCs such as rainfall and solar energy. This is especially appropriate if the dynamic or time-dependent nature of the LQ is important, for example, moisture stress at critical times. The results of the simulation are the behavior over time of the Land Quality. This must be classified to severity levels. For example, ‘high

moisture availability’ could be defined as less than 10% frequency of three or more consecutive days with a moisture deficit in the growing season.

      Advantages: (1) the model provides a more-or-less mechanistic view of the land quality, i.e., its causes as well as its severity level; (2) dynamic simulation provides a time-series of results.

      Disadvantages in a land evaluation context: (1) high data requirements, (2) difficult calibration, and (3) the considerable expertise and judgment needed for their correct application.

Exercises

Phrases in the text .

 

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 1)  Особенности земли;  

 2) статистический базис; 

  3) минимально приемлемый уровень дохода;   

    4) эффект взаимодействия;   

  5) доступность влаги.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) Can’t‚ evaluate, must;

2) level, moisture, scale;

3) 0.2,  30, 150;

 4) that, the‚ this;  

5) differs‚ compensate, provides.

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Text

Exercises

Phrases in the text.

  1)  Операциональное определение;  

  2) экономическая стоимость; 

  3) скорость суммарной реакции;   

    4) снижение процента выхода годных;   

  5) жёсткое ограничение.

Circle the Odd Word Out.

1) FAO‚ LUT, United Nations;

2) appropriate, economic, suitability;

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   3) a,  an, and;

4) coarser, finer‚ physical;  

5) be‚ can, not.

 

G LOSSARY

A

       Absolute humidity: the amount or weight of water vapor in a mass (volume) of air expressed as grams of water per kilogram of air, or per cubic meter of air.

       Access road: (an urban) road linking individual plots (be they residential, commercial or industrial), with distributor roads.

       Accessibility to housing: acquisition of a house by building; buying one already built or finding one for rent from either the public or private sector.

       Accessibility: (a) whether the target groups are able to use the planned intervention e.g. regarding opportunity to get a plot in an upgraded area, (b) or ease of movement within (urban) space, e.g. regarding availability of roads, speed etc.

       Accommodation unit: a housing unit occupied by one household whether it is a separate house, maisonette, flat or apartment and whether permanent or temporary.

       Action (area) plan: plan prepared for selected areas of an urban area as specific investment

project, funds for which may be reserved in an annual budget or provided by a donor, hence may

be seen also as short or medium term strategy.

       Active regional growth policy: (also called initiating growth policy), is an ambitious policy that involves the rejection of existing settlement structure or patterns, and the creation of new centres in an attempt to create development (see also passive regional growth policy, growth pole policy).

       Adjustment: generic term for package of economic and institutional measures the Word Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the West imposed on poor countries in 1980s to force them to adopt in return for a new wave of policy-oriented loans to shatter state led development paradigms dominant after the second world war and thus to promote the market mechanism supervised by a minimalist state which took two dimensions: (a) stabilization (devaluation of currency, public expenditure cuts)  advocated  by  IMF

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to reduce short term imbalances and (b) adjustment (deregulation, privatization) advocated by WB to promote efficiency for medium term growth.

    Adjustments: money that the buyer and sellers credit each other at the time of closing. Often includes taxes and down payment.

      Aerial photograph: a picture of the earth surface taken from an airplane. The pictures are the basis of maps used for spatial planning. The maps show details of roads, buildings, trees, and poles. The height at which the plane flies determines the scale of the map and therefore the amount of detail on the map e.g. a scale of 1:10000 means that the flight was low while that of 1:25000 means the flight was high and less details are captured.

Appraisal: a determination of the value of something, such as a house, jewelry or stock. A professional appraiser a qualified, disinterested expert-makes an estimate by examining the property, and looking at the initial purchase price and comparing it with recent sales of similar property. Courts commonly order appraisals in probate, condemnation, bankruptcy or foreclosure proceedings in order to determine the fair market value of property. Banks and real estate companies use appraisals to ascertain the worth of real estate for lending purposes. And insurance companies require appraisals to determine the amount of damage done to covered property before settling insurance claims.

Appraised value: an estimate of the present worth.

 

B

      Base Map: map showing existing developments that is used as basis of local physical development plans (see also land use map)

      Baseline Data: data describing the situation prior to intervention by a programme or project that serve as starting point for measuring or demonstrating changes in that situation and the performance of the programme or project.

      Baseline: facts about the condition or performance of subjects prior to treatment or intervention.

      Bed rock: solid hard rock forming the base of earth’s crust which may be weathered into clay, sand, silt which then cover its top or if not covered, it appears as outcrop.

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      Benefit taxes: taxes imposed on people who benefit from municipal services in order to recover the costs of financing for the same service.

      Brokerage: for a commission or fee, bringing together parties interested in buying, selling, exchanging, or leasing real property.

      Building line: a line fixed at a certain distance from the front and/or sides of a lot beyond which no structure can project.

      Buyer's broker: a licensee who has declared to represent only the buyer in a transaction, regardless of whether compensation is paid by the buyer or the listing broker through a commission split. Some brokers conduct their business by representing buyers only.

 

C

      Cadastral map: a map with a large enough scale (e.g. 1:2500) showing how a piece of land is divided into plots according to property ownership

      Cadastral survey: survey conducted to produce a cadastral map; to demarcate plots and settle or prevent land ownership conflicts relating to such plots or land parcels to provide security of tenure and prevent land owners evading tax.

      Cadastre: a public register of the quantity, value and ownership of land in the country based on a survey showing accurately the extent and measurement of every plot of land compiled to assist in policy making- Greek: kata stichon= line by line.

      Capacity: ability to perform one’s duties, which is acquired through training and experience and better realised where the requisite facilities are also available. While a lot of capacity building training is done in Malawi, capacity especially at local levels is still very low due to brain drain and poor targeting.

      Cartography: drawing of maps and charts based on survey data at appropriate scale.

       City plan: an urban structure plan for a city. The ‘urban’ and ‘structure’ are deleted because ‘city urban’ sounds tautologies.

      City rates: property tax charge on all properties within the town/city/municipal whether the property was legally or illegally built or on legal or illegal plot. The rate is based on the land value and improvement on it or the quality of the building built.

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      City: (a) politically, an urban area declared as such by the president within the context of Local Government Act. (b) Physically, large self sufficient urban areas with big (size of course varies in space) cosmopolitan population.

      Classified value: one measured on a discrete scale.

      Client: a person or organization that requests the work and will act on the basis of its results. Also called the user of the land evaluation results.

      Continuous value: one measured on a continuous scale, with arbitrary precision.

       Conservation: preservation of natural resources and their protection from misuse, wastage and hazards like fire.

D

       Dairy farming: rearing of cows for production of milk for consumption and conversion to butter, cheese and other milk products.

      Data set: collection of observations of several different variables on the same individuals or units, the individual occurrences within the data set being called variables.

      Decentralization policy: policy of the Malawi government implemented since 1998 to devolve some of central government functions to local authorities the purpose being to consolidate democracy and as a strategy for realizing the development goal of poverty alleviation.

      Decentralized environmental management: under the Environmental Management Act (1996), participatory environmental management devolved to low tiers of local government. For example, as a requirement, state of the environment reports have to be prepared from village through traditional authority area level to district level then to national level every two years in order to ensure that local communities participate in the identification of environmental and natural resources problems and their solutions. All this of course is within the context of national policy.

      Deed: a written instrument by which title to land is conveyed.

      Delineation (on a map): the undivided portion of a map sheet inside a continuous boundary line, and outside any contained continuous boundary line, if any.

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     Demand: ability and willingness of consumers to pay for a good or service.

      Density: the number of houses, households or persons per unit area. The context of usage varies; we can talk of residential density (medium, low, high density residential areas) or number of family members per room in a dwelling unit or number of persons per unit of land available.

      Derelict land: land damaged by some process, mostly extractive industry and or neglect, abandoned and left to fall to ruin incapable of being used in its present condition.

         District: a political region within a country or a region within a city.

     District administration: deconcetrated activities of the central government in the district coordinated by a district commissioner.

     District assembly: new name for district council that has incorporated hitherto deconcetrated OPC functions at district level (see district council). The district assembly comprises elected ward councillors, the district commissioner, and members of parliament within the district and co-opted members.

     District centre plan: plan for the central area of a district headquarters or boma.

     District centre: (a) usually boma or central area of district headquarters where offices of district commissioner are located; (b) an urban centre with central place functions, services and facilities having influence over a whole district (such a centre is also called main market centre implying that it is not just district headquarters that may have influence over the whole district) as designated by the National Physical Development Plan.

E

     Earth drain: storm water drain without brick or concrete lining.

     Earth road: road constructed simply by clearing earth and leveling in-situ material.

       Ecology: the study of the reaction of plants and animals to their immediate environment and with their place in that environment.

     Economic land evaluation:  an evaluation of suitability based on  some economic measure of net benefits,  should  a  given  LUT  be

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implemented on a given land area.

      Ecosystem: interaction of living things with and within the environment. The system becomes a self –sustaining and self-regulating community of organisms considered in relation to each other as well as with their inorganic environment.

     Eminent Domain: the right of government to declare that any land under its jurisdiction must be appropriated for public use.

     Environment: physical factors of the surroundings of human beings including land, water, atmosphere, climate, sound, odor, taste, and the biological factors of fauna and flora, and includes the cultural, social and economic aspects of human activity, the natural and built environment which must be harmonized for conducive human life.

     Environmental impact assessment (EIA): systematic evaluation of a project to determine its impact on the environment and the conservation of natural resources.

     Environmental management: policies and actions implemented for the sustainable use of natural resources and improvement of the environment as a whole.

     Environmental planning: planning with emphasis on the environment in the approach and proposals made. Because of its environmental objective, physical planning in Malawi was until late 1990s almost synonymous with environmental planning.

     Environmental problem: any change to the natural make up of the environment which may affect socio-economic benefits from natural resources by the country, community or individuals.

     Environmental trends: changes in conditions of the environment and natural resources over a specific period of time expressed in different ways such as by histograms, line graphs or maps at different times.

     Evaluations: specific evaluation exercises.

     Evaluator: a person who carries out the land evaluation.

 

F

     Fertility: a measure of possibility of child bearing measured in terms of the number of females in childbearing ages of 15-49 years. According to 1998 census there were 2.4 million females in childbearing ages.

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     Flood plain: flood plains are by definition subject to periodic flooding. They are generally characterized by relatively flat topography and soil types that were laid down during past inundations by flood waters. If your property is in the 100-year flood plain, there is a 1-in-100 chance in any given year that your property will flood. If it is in the 25-year flood plain, there is a 1-in-25 chance in any given year that your property will flood. The statistical chance of flooding is not changed by any one flooding event; but repeated flooding may result in the flood plain being recalculated.

     The changes in flood plain maps reflect changes in land use (such as increased building activity), changes in the waterways, and flood control improvements (such as detention ponds or other flood control measures). As more lots are covered with more buildings and parking lots, the amount of water that flows into creeks and lakes increases because there is less vegetation to absorb the water when it rains. This is one reason why buildings that were not originally built in a flood plain are now in the 25-year or 100-year flood plain.

      Forest reserve: area of land protected by law for the preservation of natural trees and vegetation (if the main reason is to protect animals, it is called game reserve).

     Framework: how to carry out an evaluation exercise.

     Fuel crisis: shortage of oil starting from 17 October 1973 when due to the Yom Kippur War,Arab members of Opec stopped oil exports to countries that supported Israel in the Israel-Egypt War; a decision which rendered industries in Western Europe, US and Japan vulnerable. Worldprices rose from $2.59 per barrel to $11.65 per barrel between January and December, 1973.The embargo was lifted in March 1974, but in 1979 another oil crisis occurred due to reduced exports from Iran due to the protests following the Iranian Revolution. The effect on poor countries was that they had to borrow to buy the expensive oil and later failed to pay back the loans, third world fuel costs increased from $12 billion in 1973 to $30 billion in 1974 to $42 billion in 1975.

   Fuel wood: use of wood as fuel for domestic chores. Because only less than 5% of the population has access to electricity in Malawi and consequent high rate of deforestation for firewood selling and charcoal production, there has been serious concern about a fuel wood

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crisis since the 1980s and several measures were put in place to remedy the situation.

   Functional region: geographical area, which shows a certain functional coherence, interdependence of parts according to defined criteria. It is called either nodal or polarized region and is composed of heterogeneous units like cities, towns, villages which have functional interrelationships revealed through shopping trips, linking shopping centre or jobs with subsidiary centres.

 

G

     General fertility rate: total number of births divided by the number of women in childbearing ages 15-44 expressed per 1000; fertility based on all women of child bearing ages whether the children they bear are legitimate or illegitimate, i.e. total number of children born per 1000 total women.

     GIS: geographical information system, computer programme or data base for assembling, storing, manipulating and displaying geographically referenced information; ability to construct maps showing what is desired by drawing co-ordinates 9where things are) and setting attributes (how things are like). GIS gives ability to associate information with a feature on a map and to create a relationship that can determine the suitability of various sites for development, evaluation of environmental impact and for identification of the best location for a project etc.

     Governance: ‘the relationship between civil society and the state, between rulers and the ruled, the government and the governed,’230that is, a shift from emphasis on the state centered views of urban management to include elements of civil society, private sector and community organizations so that political decision making is shared.

     Ground water: water from precipitation that has percolated downwards from the surface through the zone of aeration to a zone of saturation where all pores and cracks in the bedrock is filled with water. The top of the zone of aeration is called water table; ground is the base flow for streams.

    Guidelines (directives):  what factors (land qualities) to consider  when  evaluating for certain general kinds of land uses,  how

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to evaluate these qualities.

 

H

     Habitat: the immediate natural environment of an organism or group of organisms used as synonym for environment. However, it is a sub-division of a biome or major complex of an ecosystem (e.g. tropical forest).

    Hazardous substance: any chemical, waste, gas, gaseous matter, medicines, drugs, plant, animal, or microorganism that is injurious to human health or the environment.

    Hazardous waste: waste that is poisonous, corrosive, noxious, explosive, inflammable, radioactive, toxic or harmful to the environment or human beings.

    Headland: highland jutting into the lake or sea e.g. the Makuzi (Bandawe) headland.

    Heavy industrial area: industrial estate for industries using heavy equipment, producing bulky roducts and sometimes generating a lot of waste. Heavy industrial sites are located after careful tudy of wind patterns to avoid polluting residential areas and soil structure to have stable buildings.

    Homelessness: a situation whereby people have no shelter of any type or quality to sleep in, sometimes also referred to as sleeping rough.

    House: structure for human habitation or shelter (see also housing unit, housing); in planning law and practice a house is not a house unless it was built according to approved plans.

    Household: one or more persons, related or unrelated who live together and make common provision for food and other essentials for living; they regularly take their food together prepared from the same pot and / or share the same food store or pool their incomes for purposes of purchasing food.

    Housing: broad perspective in human settlements discourses comprising three basic components of shelter for human habitation (houses), infrastructure and services such as provision of water, sanitation, electricity, education, health, recreation etc; the whole physical environment within and outside building which serves as shelter.

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    Humidity: the amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature (see absolute humidity, relative humidity).

 

I

     Improvement area: any area of land, especially informal settlements including squatter areas, declared as such according to the town planning law for purposes of carrying out upgrading projects.

     Industrial area: zone in an urban area for the location of industries. This is categorized according to industry e.g. heavy, service or light.

     Industrial estate: industrial area that has been developed, the plots are surveyed; roads, drains, sewer lines etc are constructed for the development of industrial enterprises.

     Industrial park: concept emerging after 20th Century especially in developed countries that seeks to promote industrial development through the promotion of agglomeration economies and the central government is called upon to create a favorable environment by making land acquisition simple and short while following the legal processes.

    Integrated urban development process: institutional development process meant to support general urban development process especially dealing with organizational, financial and policy issues to effectively handle planning, infrastructure and service provision.

    Integrated urban infrastructure development programme: basic needs approach to local economic development as part of Municipal development programme which emphasized strategic urban planning.

     Integrated urban management: two fold urban management approach to tackle short comings of infrastructure development for urban areas involving (a) making sure ‘the city gets the infrastructure and services to cope with… rapid [population] growth… and ‘to ensure that the council is in a fit condition, organizationally and financially, to plan, provide and maintain the infrastructure and services’ and specifically follows three components: an integrated development strategy, management manual and annual reporting.

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J

          Junction: a point where one road joins another. The roads may be of varying sizes or functions.

       Jurisdiction area: area within the administrative boundary of local governments where they exercise their planning and management authority.

 

K

        Knowledge based economy: also called new economy, an economy directly based in the promotion, distribution and use of knowledge and information, economy powered by technology, driven by ideas, rooted in innovation and enterprise, especially one that has high economic growth and low inflation by taking advantage of globalization (global economy) of production factors and markets as well as the rapid development of information technology. Advantages of knowledge-based industries include: production value per worker is high; floor area per worker is small than non-knowledge based industries hence land resources create higher production value.

 

L

       Land: an area of the earth’s surface, the characteristics of which embrace all reasonably stable, or predictably cyclic, attributes of the biosphere vertically above and below this area, including those of the atmosphere, the soil and underlying geology, the hydrology, the plant and animal populations, and the results of past and present human activity, to the extent that these attributes exert a significant influence on present and future uses of the land by humans.

       Land Characteristic (LC): a simple attribute of the land that can be directly measured or estimated in routine survey in any operational sense, including by remote sensing and census as well as by natural resource inventory. Cf. land quality.

       Land Quality (LQ): a complex attribute of land which acts in a manner distinct from the actions of other land qualities in its influence on the suitability of land for a specified kind of use; the ability of the land to fulfill specific requirements for a LUT.

       Land resource expert:  a  person who has information  on  the

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land resource.

      Land Suitability: the fitness of a given type of land for a specified kind of land use.

       Land-use expert: a person who has information about a land use or land quality, in relation to the land.

       Land Use Requirement (LUR): a condition of the land necessary for successful and sustained implementation of a specific Land Utilization Type.

       Land Utilization Type (LUT): A kind of land use described or defined in a degree of detail greater than that of a major kind of land use. In the context of irrigated agriculture, a land utilization type refers to a crop, crop combination or cropping system with specified irrigation and management methods in a defined technical and socio-economic setting. In the context of rain fed agriculture, a land utilization type refers to a crop, crop combination or cropping system with a specified technical and socioeconomic setting. A land utilization type in forestry consists of a technical specifications in a given physical, economic and social setting.

 

M

            Mapping: the making of maps based on aerial photographs.

       Major Kind of Land Use: A major subdivision of rural land use, such as rain fed agriculture, irrigated agriculture, grassland, forestry, recreation, annual crops, perennial crops, swamp rice cultivation, forest plantation, or natural forests.

      Map unit: a set of map delineations designated by a single name, and representing a single legend category.

           Market value: price that one would expect under specified market conditions (also called most probable selling price) with the assumption that more than one buyer and seller operating within a market with reasonable knowledge of the market, rational behavior, open market etc.

      Minimum decision area: the size of the individual land areas for which decisions are to be made.

      Minimum legible delineation (MLD) of a map: the minimum legible size of a polygon on a map at a given scale, conventionally taken to be 0.4cm² on the map.

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          Monitoring: the mechanism for ensuring that implemented actions operate according to set objectives on the basis of which an evaluation can be conducted.

      Mortgage: the surrendering of title to a property by a borrower to a lender as security for a loan especially one incurred to purchase the property with the understanding that it shall be returned when and only when the loan is fully repaid and failure to pay suggests the lender can take over the same property regardless of how much may have been repaid up to then.

          Municipality: an urban area or centre declared as such by the minister responsible for local government according to local government laws. A municipal status is a step towards city status and higher than township. However, though guided by the size, level of development etc does not matter, the decision is political.

N

          Natural increase: population increase resulting from natural factors calculated by subtracting deaths from births i.e. crude death rate from crude birth rate, simply excess of births over deaths (excludes effects of migration and boundary changes).

      Natural resources: parts of the environment that are not made by man; which can be renewable such as trees, fish, animals etc and non-renewable such as land, soils, minerals.

       Neighborhood: a small defined area, usually part of a housing area, within an urban district.

      Nominal value: a classified value whose scale of measurement is not ordered, i.e., the order of the classes is arbitrary and therefore not meaningful.

 

O

      Open space: space in a layout plan left without buildings in order to promote natural vegetation, develop public parks, protect river reserves, for play areas or at road junctions so that buildings do not distract vehicles. Urban assembly authorities will beautifully landscape the spaces.

      Optimum legible delineation (OLD) of a map:  the  minimum

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easily-legible size of a polygon on a map at a given scale,

conventionally taken to be 4 times the minimum legible delineation (MLD) of 0.4cm², i.e. 1.6cm² on the map.

      Ordinal value: a classified value whose scale of measurement is ordered, i.e., the order of the classes is meaningful.

 

P

       Participation: Participation is a much overused word and underused activity’ which means ‘involvement in formulating planning and implementing policies and projects. It involves empowerment and the development of self-reliance…involves officials listening to the people and recognizing that a person’s worth and rights do not depend on his /her socio-economic position…it involves transparency in administration; people must know the basis for decisions, rules, and actions, and these bases must be given in advance, in a comprehensive form, and must be adhered to.

      Permanent housing areas: conventional housing areas where only permanent type of houses are permitted. There are three types in Malawi: high density where plots are less than 0.1 ha, medium density where plots are 0.1ha to 0.2ha and low-density areas where plots are 0.2ha and above. Though some plots may be larger, the largest plot is supposed to be 0.4ha. Before construction in these areas building plans must be scrutinized by planning authority.

      Place: a particular area in space where people and the environment interact over time to give it characteristics distinct from surrounding areas. It also means a particular part of space occupied or

unoccupied by a person, object or organisms and may sometimes refer to a position in a hierarchy.

      Plan: a document together with a drawing describing how the future of a spatial area should be developed in relation to the location and sitting of physical infrastructure, the document being the justification for the layout of physical infrastructure; a projected or future course of action that can be implemented depending on the availability of resources.

       Planner: urban planner, town planner, regional planner, physical planner etc.

     Planning process: The legal or formal steps or procedures  and

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rules that should be followed to prepare an urban (development) plan that should be institutionalized in planning law in order to promote social justice which is the rationale for planning.

       Physical land evaluation: an evaluation based only on physical factors that determine whether a LUT can be implemented on a land area, and the nature and severity of physical limitations or hazards.

      Plot: a piece of land parceled out from a larger one for a specific development project such as for construction of a house, a shop, development of a farm. Also called ‘lot’ or ‘stand’. This piece of land may be parceled out by survey or not.

      Pollution: direct or indirect alteration of the physical, thermal, chemical, biological, or radioactive properties of the environment caused by the discharge, emission or deposit of waste or pollutants into the environment in such amounts and for such duration and under such conditions as to cause an actual or potential danger to the environment.

 

R

     Range: average maximum distance from the supplier at which the consumer will just be willing to travel to purchase the goods offered. This will then determine the outer limit of a market area (influence area) beyond which no one can purchase the goods due to frictional effect of distance.

    Rate: a special type of ratio used to show the relative frequency of the occurrence of an event to the base of 100 or 1000 in a specified period of time usually one year e.g. growth rate per year. The numerator represents events generated by or occurring among members of the denominator (death rate for a year is found by dividing number of death in that year by population in that year and multiply by 1000).

     Recycling: collecting and reprocessing a resource so that it can be made into new products; e.g. aluminium beer cans, can be melted and new cans or other aluminium products made.

     Region: (a) geographical area defined according to selected criteria including but not limited to climate, topography, vegetation etc for particular purposes such as political, administrative or planning

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etc . (b) A political demarcation of a country comprising several districts for ease of administration. 

     Regional planning: a form of planning with spatial dimension meant to find solutions to the economic inequalities between regions and within a region such as for a city to reduce environmental problems of congestion (including health hazards, poor accessibility etc).

     Rural area: an area without urban functions, ideally the opposite of urban area even though the dividing line between what is rural and what is urban is subjective.

 

S

          Scale: the relationship between the distance between two points on a map to the same two points on the actual surface. Three points which determine the scale of a map: amount of information and details to be shown, size of paper on which to draw the map and the size of surface to be represented on the map.

      Scale factor of a map: ratio of distance on the ground to distance on the map. The denominator of the conventional representation of map scale.

     Settlement: single or group of buildings for human habitation and other activities in an area which may be urban or rural; location of dwelling units and system to maintain them.

      Sewer lines: large asbestos or steel pipe reticulations that carry household wastes to central treatment plants.

      Sewerage works: the destination of household waste where it is treated. After treatment the water can be discharged into natural bodies without harmful effects.

      Sewerage: fluid wastes from households, commercial and industrial enterprises.

     Space: (a) absolute space meaning room available or set aside; (b) relative space, as all economic activities are space users and have spatial dimension. Hence, the geographical view of economic activity is spatial, that is, we have economic space, political space, social space etc.

      Stakeholders: all parties who will be affected by the results of the planning decisions taken on the basis of the land evaluation.

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      Suitability classes: divisions of suitability orders that indicate the degree of suitability, not simply suitable vs. not suitable.

     Suitability orders: land is either suitable or not suitable for a LUT.

      Suitability subclasses: divisions of suitability classes which indicate not only the degree of suitability but also the nature of the limitations that make the land less than completely suitable.

      Suitability units: divisions of suitability subclasses, which have different management requirements.

 

T

     Title: evidence of a person’s right to property which may be in form of a certificate, letter, documents etc.

      Title registration: a form of land registration in which the land parcel is the focus of the records so that any changes in ownership are registered with reference to the land itself not deeds/ instruments. The

information on the register is guaranteed by the state so that in the event of fraud or error, anyone inadvertently suffering from the incorrectness of the information will be compensated.

        Town planning: study of how towns work including traffic, residential areas, services and the planning of the way they are built to make them as effective as possible, it is the system for managing changes to the environment to achieve a balance between our need for new development while conserving what is valued about the environment (such as green spaces, wildlife, historic buildings and places), a balance between current need for development and needs of future generations (sustainable development). Because of planning, positive developments such as cities, towns, villages can be created.

      Town: (a) politically, an urban area so declared by the minister responsible under the Local government Act (1998) and administered by an elected body called town assembly (see city); (b) physically, an area consisting of a compact agglomeration of dwellings, shops, offices, public buildings etc usually with paved roads, street lighting, public services and a population pursuing an urban way of living. These aspects or urban functions by subjective and arbitrary delineation make a town different from a village centre. However, there is no accepted  definition  of a town; what  is  called a town  may

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actually be a village in another country.

     Townscape: physical forms and arrangements of buildings and spaces that characterise the urban landscape or urban environment or built environment.

     Township: urban area declared as such by the minister responsible for local government. As with city and municipality, the decision is a political one. The difference between city, municipality and township, is not of size, but who or whether declared or not. Usually, but not always all townships are planning areas. The effect of such declaration is the establishment of a political administration (called town assembly) over the town with some powers of local government through its elected assembly. Salima, Zomba 638, and Mzuzu were declared with effect from 1st January 1966(GN325/1965); Balaka, Dedza and Mangochi were declared with effect from 15th March, 1966(GN 48/1966); Luchenza with effect from 1987 (GN 43/1987)639

      Trade winds: surface winds that generally dominate air flow in the tropics and blow from 30o N and S latitudes towards the equator. In the northern hemisphere they blow from north east to south east direction hence called north east trade winds or north easterlies; in the southern hemisphere they blow from south east to north east direction, hence called south east trade winds

    Transport network: set of routes which connect junctions and termini.

 

U

   Urban agriculture: a new paradigm in urban planning which advocates agriculture activities within urban areas or peri-urban areas especially on vacant land so that urban areas produce their own food in context of food security and self sufficiency at household and city levels, poverty alleviation, but also for reduction in and recycling of wastes in the context of sustainability. Critics consider it as realization of urban areas.

     Urban area: area or settlement where the dominant activities are urban oriented or where urban functions are more dominant than rural (or agriculture) functions. There is however no internationally accepted definition of what constitutes urban; what is urban in Malawi

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may be rural in Asia or Europe, yet have better infrastructure facilities. In colonized countries race also played apart in the definition.

     Urban assembly: elected political administration for a town, a municipal or a city.

     Urban authority: urban assembly, the political body administering the urban district headed by a mayor or for smaller urban district, a chairman.

    Urban centre: any centre with some urban functions. In Malawi urban centers are defined according to criterion from Physical Planning Department. Usually, but not always a centre that qualifies for declaration as a planning area can be considered as an urban centre because political considerations also matter.

     Urban growth: increase in urban population over a specified period.

      Urban management: a wide range of activities aimed at maximizing efficiency of a city’s public service delivery and equitable access to services by all segments of its population; may conceptually be seen as comprising the functions of governance, development policy and investment decisions, implementation and management of assets, regulation and taxation, promotion of public relations.

    Urban (city, town) planning: deals with the design of the built environment at a municipal or metropolitan level.

 

V

     Valuation: process or exercise of estimating or calculating the capital or rental value of interest in property at a particular time, also called property appraisal in USA.

        Value in exchange: in valuation, the market value.

     Value in use: in valuation, the present worth of all future benefits to the owner of the interest in that property.

     Valuer: a professional in the art and science of valuation: assesses the value of properties at a particular time and for a particular purpose- rating, purchase/sale, insurance, taxation, compulsory acquisition, mortgage grant, rent etc.

    Variable: a set of mutually exclusive attributes e.g. sex, age, marital status, employment status etc.

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     Vital events: events about an individual’s entrance into or departure from life including changes in

civil status such as: births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and separations.

     Vital statistics: or registration statistics. Records of these are called vital or registration records, hence we have birth registration; death registration, marriage registration etc.

W

     Waste water: water from households (be it from kitchens, bathrooms, toilets) industrial and commercial processes. Waste water stabilization ponds; comprise a series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds consisting of shallow, usually rectangular bodies of water into which wastewater continuously flows and from which a stabilized effluent is discharged. Anaerobic and facultative ponds are primarily for the removal of organic matter, although they are effective in removing intestinal nematode eggs. Maturation ponds are used mainly for the removal of excreted bacteria and viruses.

    Water quality: measures used to determine the suitability of water for human consumption which requires the identification and removal of contaminants which may be dissolved and suspended.

      Weather: short term variations in properties of the troposphere at a given place and time such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover, wind direction, wind speed among others.

    Wetland: land that is covered all or part of the time with water (salt or fresh), excluding stream, lakes the open oceans711. (e.g. Okavango Delta in Botswana; areas around Lake Chirwa in Malawi have been designated as such).

   Wet point site: settlement location where the main advantage is a water supply in an otherwise dry area.

      Windward: direction from which winds blow.

   Windward side: an area that receives heavy rainfall because it is on the side of the relief feature that faces the moist winds that, when forced to rise, condenses to form rains. The rain so formed is called relief rain or orographic rain.

   Wood pulp: fibre of wood processed by mechanical means and chemical to form a mixture of water and cellulose  fibres used  as  raw

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material in the manufacturing of paper.

   World Bank Project: high profile urban (and other) development programmes funded with loans from the World Bank. The most known  example  is  the failed Kameza low cost housing project where the small size (one bed room) of houses built were criticised by both the Malawi government and general public. The said Project was at a prime site on the round about to Chileka town, the site of Malawi’s second international airport. Kameza was rezoned to medium density and houses demolished and replaced with medium density type houses for middle-income earners in the 1990s.

   World Bank: international bank formed after Second World War for reconstruction of Europe. In later years, the bank extended its membership to all members of the United Nations. Together with the IMF; it is also referred to as Brettonwoods Institutions. After the 1973 fuel crisis and resultant debt crisis, the bank became influential in restructuring economies of poor countries as a condition for bailing them out of the debt crises. The conditions attached to its loans reduced government to almost company level relying on dictates and watching citizen populations suffer. All was in the belief that economic development was no longer the task of government.

  World cities: or global cities, cities that are quite large, centres of innovation and have a lot of multinational corporations’ headquarters and thus, due to globalisation and its impacts, have influence over the whole world in terms of business, tourism, education, technology etc. Examples include Tokyo, London, Paris, New York, Frankfurt, Moscow, Taipei, Brussels etc.

Y

     Yard: small plot of open land attached to a building, partly or completely enclosed in some cases by the building itself; enclosed plot of open land set aside for a particular activity e.g. ship yard, railway yard.

     Yardangs: bands of hard and soft rock that lie parallel to the prevailing winds in a desert region formed due to wind abrasion. The belt of hard rock stand up to 15m high in the process forming a landscape of ridges and troughs.

     Young  fold  mountains:   recently   formed  mountains  whose

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surface has not yet been smoothed by agents of erosion.

     Young population: a population with most of its people mainly young, with median age of less than 20 years or less than 5% of the people aged 65 and over.

     Younging population: a population in which the proportion of young people is rising.

 

Z

      Zero based budgeting: method of budgeting applicable to service costs in an organization whereby all tasks are re-evaluated each time a budget is set. This requires the budgeting of each department or cost centre from zero activity that is in contrast to incremental budgeting where only changes from previous activity levels are considered. The aim is to isolate obsolete activities, make it easy for management to make decisions on the level of resources needed and to make priorities.

     Zero population growth: state in which the birth rate, including immigration, equals the death rate, including emigration, so that the population of an area is no longer increasing.

    Zone of aeration: the sub-surface zone in which water does not fully saturate pore spaces of the soil lying below soil moisture belt and above zone of saturation. Moisture is held in this zone by capillary force in tiny films adhering to soil particles. The zone may be missing if ground water is close to the surface in low-lying areas or deep in hilly areas.

     Zone of indifference: in central place theory, the area between the hinterlands of competing centres within which no one centre exerts a dominant influence.

     Zone: an area within an urban area designated for a specific use according to the urban structure plan.

     Zoning control: specifying and ensuring the location of residential and other land uses according to the urban structure plan.

     Zoning: segregating urban land into use zones for purposes of promoting a sound environment, reducing conflicts between various developments and ensuring aesthetic beauty in urban space and thus a means to maintain property values, both public and private.

 

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Е. А. Назарова

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Учебное пособие

 

 

Москва 2011

Министерство сельского хозяйства Российской Федерации

 

Федеральное государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования

«Государственный университет по землеустройству»

 

Кафедра русского и иностранных языков

 

Е. А. Назарова

 

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

 

Рекомендовано Учебно-методическим объединением по образованию в области землеустройства и кадастров для межвузовского использования в качестве учебного пособия для студентов 1-2 курсов высших учебных заведений по специальности 123103 «Городской кадастр»

 

Москва 2011

УДК 802

ББК 81.2

 

Подготовлено и рекомендовано к печати

кафедрой русского и иностранных языков

 Государственного университета по землеустройству.

(протокол )

 

Утверждено к изданию методической комиссией

юридического факультета

Государственного университета по землеустройству.

(протокол….)

 

Автор:

ст. преподаватель, к.ф.н. Назарова Е. А.

 

Рецензент:

ст. преподаватель кафедры русского и иностранных языков Государственного университета по землеустройству

Титаренко Н. А.

 

 

УДК 802

ББК 81.2

 

© Государственный университет по землеустройству, 2011

                   © Назарова Е. А., 2011

 

 

 INTRODUCTION

Urban planning is a systematic, creative way to influence the future of neighborhoods, cities, rural and metropolitan areas, and even the country and the world. Urban planners use their professional skills to serve communities facing social, economic, environmental, and cultural challenges by helping community residents to: 1) develop ways to preserve and enhance their quality-of-life; 2) find methods to protect the natural and built environment; 3) identify policies to promote equity and equality; 4) structure programs to improve services to disadvantaged communities, and; 5) determine methods to deal effectively with growth and development of all kinds.

This textbook is designed to show you:  how fulfilling a career in planning might be; the wide variety of jobs which urban planners do; the kind of education and training you need to become an urban planner.

Is an Urban Planning Career for Me?

• Are you interested in positive social, economic, environmental, and physical change?

• Do you want to work with people from various backgrounds to develop a better community?

• Do you like to communicate with others about ideas, programs, and plans?

• Are you challenged by complex problems – and excited about being part of a cooperative process to devise solutions to those problems?

If you answered “YES” to any of these questions, you should seriously consider becoming an urban planner!

This textbook consists of 10 thematic sections, according to the educational program: Need for Cadastre‚ Professional Occupations‚ Real Estate Economics‚ Economy and Planning Municipal Services‚ Urban Management‚ Monitoring and Security of Urban Environment‚ Town-Planning Cadastre‚ Town Planning and Population Aggregate‚ Municipal Management‚ Land Evaluation. Each section includes grammar and lexical exercises. A glossary completes the book.

 

 

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Section 1

NEED FOR CADASTRE

Text   

Origins of the Cadastre Concept

A cadastre may be defined as a record of interests in land, encompassing both the nature and extent of these interests. An interest in land (or property right) may be narrowly construed as a legal right capable of ownership or more broadly interpreted to include any uniquely recognized relationship among people with regard to the acquisition and management of land. According to the French etymologist Blondheim, the term cadastre is probably derived from the Greek word katastichon, meaning notebook. In Latin, the term gradually evolved to captastrum, or register of territorial taxation units into which Roman provinces were divided.

Precursory cadastral arrangements may be traced to the earliest agricultural settlements along the Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile Rivers. In the pristine Egyptian state, revenues for the Pharaohs and the priesthood were met principally by taxes on the land. For purposes of taxation, the land was measured and the boundaries demarcated. Clay tablets unearthed from the ancient ruins of Sumerian villages provide records of charges against the land, maps of towns and tracts of land‚ area computation‚ and‚ most notably‚ court trials adjudicating ownership and boundary disputes. The Greek and Romans established elaborate land-record systems primarily in support of land taxation policies.

One of the most famous cadastral projects was the Domesday Book of Norman England. The Domesday Book was primarily a collection of facts about the land and its improvements made for fiscal purposes. The actual collection of data was carried out during 1085-1086 and covered all of England with the exception of the four northern counties and the cities of London and Winchester. Similarly‚ Louis VI provided for the first measurement and assessment of French lands in 1115. 

The origins of what has come to be accepted as the modern cadastre concept are found in the development of the cadastre systems

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of Continental Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Like the earlier efforts‚ these were fundamentally designed for taxation or fiscal purposes. The Milanese cadastre mapping program conducted between 1720 and 1723 was one of the earliest efforts to establish a fiscal cadastre in the modern sense. This program generated a series of estate maps at a scale of 1:2000 for the Italian provinces of Milan and Mantua shortly after they were acquired by the Austrians. Somewhat later‚ the program was expanded when Emperor Joseph II ordered a cadastral survey for the entire territory encompassed by the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. In 1807‚ Napoleon appointed the mathematician Delambre to chair a Commission given the task: “To survey … more than 100 million parcels‚ to classify these parcels by the fertility of the soil‚ and to evaluate the productive capacity of each one; to bring together under the name of each owner a list of the separate parcels which he owns…”   

Some scholars have suggested that most of these eighteenth and nineteenth century European efforts to develop land taxation or fiscal cadastres were motivated by the economic principles of the Physiocrat movement. The Physiocrats held that the earth is the basis of all riches. This concept evolved over time into complex differential tax-assessment systems‚ based in part on differing land uses.   

  In addition‚ it appears that as early as the seventeenth century‚ the Europeans developed an understanding and appreciation of the cadastre concept for purposes beyond taxation.

 

Exercises

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