La Bruyere
Organized crime constitutes nothing less than a guerilla war against society.
Lyndon Jonson
I'm proud of the fact that I never invented weapons to kill.
Edison
Debate: WHY IS E-MAIL FRAUD SO WIDELY SPREAD?
Give examples of e-mail fraud from your own life or somebody you know, or from the books you have read. Answer the following questions:
· Is it really in the nature of people to put their confidence in get-rich-quick schemes?
· People read and hear about e-mail crimes of different forms, still they become victims of such crimes. What are the reasons?
· Are most people so naпve to let other people defraud them?
· Give examples of e-mail fraud from your own experience or somebody you know, or you have read in newspapers.
Task 22. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law.
The Causes of Crime
Part I
No one knows why crime occurs. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, when crime and sin were considered to be the same thing, is that criminals are perverse persons who deliberately commit crimes or who do so at the instigation of the devil or other evil spirits who possess those who don't conform to social norms or follow rules. People are not bad by nature, but sometimes simply too timid to resist the vicious demons that play on their weaknesses and cut their bond with the source of their Power. Humans are good by nature, but not everyone is made of steel so as to defend themselves against the demonic forces — destructive emotions and detrimental attitudes, such as fear, ignorance, hatred, worry, revenge, envy, attachment, greed, lust, doubt, prejudice, pride, vanity, impatience, sloth, discrimination, arrogance, ambition, addiction, gluttony, criticism, blame, anxiety, frustration and so on. We all get attacked by those faulty ethereal goblins of our minds and hearts, but most of us succeed to resist them. It's easy to act on anger, greed, revenge but it takes courage and strength to determine that there is something more important than that.
There are two core reasons why weakness prevails with some people: lack of faith and imbalance. People sometimes don't believe enough in the power of their own internal weapons against inner demons such as courage, tolerance, understanding, forgiveness, mercy, honesty, sincerity, integrity, honor, modesty, humbleness, generosity, love, compassion, kindness, detachment, patience, self-discipline, temperance, etc. As a result of not trusting inner resources, there is no enough motivation to develop them and use them.
There is no balance between physical skills, mental calmness and emotional state. Most criminals are simply too strong physically, pumping up the body muscles, but not enough the mental and emotional muscles. The reason why their strength becomes weakness is because they are not balanced.
The causes of crime are analyzed by many scientists — lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, economists, biologists. However, none of the existing theories give an exhaustive explanation of all types of crime.
Trying to explain the crimes biologists searched for natural causes due to the tendency of some people to crime.
Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso in 1870 came to the conclusion that some people are born with criminal tendencies. In his view, criminal types can be determined by the skull. Lombroso didn't deny the influence of society on the development of criminal behavior, but believed that most criminals biologically degenerate.
In the second half of the 20th century, attempts were made to link the criminal tendencies of a certain set of chromosomes in the genetic code. There is speculation that among the perpetrators of serious crimes, a disproportionate share of people with extra Y chromosomes. A number of studies conducted in prisons of an intensive regime, obtained a result showing that such deviation was one of hundred of prisoners, compared with one per thousand for the general population. However, studies on larger tracts of population showed that men with abnormal set of chromosomes are not more likely to commit violent acts than with the ordinary set.
Searching for the origin of antisocial personality disorders and their influence over crime led to studies of twins and adopted children in the 1980s. Identical twins have the exact same genetic makeup. Researchers found that identical twins were twice as likely to have similar criminal behavior than fraternal twins who have similar but not identical genes, just like any two siblings. Other research indicated that adopted children had greater similarities of crime rates to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents. These studies suggested a genetic basis for some criminal behavior.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
1. Is there any unanimous decision concerning the causes of crime?
2. Explain the main ideas of the theory based on theology and ethics.
3. Why does weakness prevail with some people?
4. How do you explain the tendency of some people to crime?
5. What did the study of twins show?
Task 23. Replace words and word combinations in brackets by their English equivalents from the text above.
1. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, when crime and sin considered to be the same thing, is that criminals are (порочные люди) who (преднамеренно совершают преступления) or do so (по наущению дьявола и других злых духов) who possess those who (не приспосабливается к социальным нормам) or follow rules.
2. Not everyone can defend himself against the demonic forces — (разрушительных эмоций) and (вредных отношений), such as (страх, невежество, ненависть, беспокойство, месть, зависть, привязанность, жадность, похоть, сомнение, предрассудки, тщеславие, нетерпение, лень, дискриминация, высокомерие, амбиции, обжорство, критицизм, обвинение, тревога, разочарование).
3. People sometimes don't believe enough in the power of their own internal weapons against inner demons such as (храбрость, терпение, понимание, прощение, жалость, честность, искренность, неподкупность, честь, скромность, смирение, щедрость, любовь, сострадание, доброта, чуждость искушениям, спокойствие, самодисциплина, умеренность).
4. Most criminals are simply too strong physically, (накачивая мышцы физического тела), but not enough the mental and emotional muscles.
5. However, none of the existing theories give an (исчерпывающее объяснение всем типам преступлений).
5. Trying to explain the crimes, biologists search for natural causes due to the (склонности некоторых людей к совершению преступлений).
6. Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso in 1870 (пришел к заключению) that (некоторые люди рождаются с преступными наклонностями).
6. Lombroso (не отрицал влияния общества) on the development of criminal behavior, but believed that (большинство преступников биологически выродившиеся люди).
7. (Однояйцевые близнецы имеют одинаковый генетический набор).
Task 24. Translate the following text into Russian in written form. Answer the questions after the text.
The Causes of Crime
Part II
In the 60s many psychiatrists believed that criminal behavior was lodged in certain parts of the brain, and lobotomies were frequently done on prisoners.
With new advances in medical technology, the search for biological causes of criminal behavior became more sophisticated. In 1986 psychologist Robert Hare identified a connection between certain brain activity and antisocial behavior. He found that criminals experienced less brain reaction to dangerous situations than most people. Such a brain function, he believed, could lead to greater risk-taking in life, with some criminals not fearing punishment as much as others.
Studies related to brain activity and crime continued into the early twenty-first century. Testing with advanced instruments probed the inner workings of the brain. With techniques called computerized tomography (CT scans), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET), researchers searched for links between brain activity and a tendency to commit crime. Each of these tests can reveal brain activity.
Research on brain activity investigated the role of neurochemicals, substances the brain releases to trigger body activity, and hormones in influencing criminal behavior. Studies indicated that increased levels of some neurochemicals, such as serotonin, decreases aggression. Serotonin is a substance produced by the central nervous system that has broad sweeping affect on the emotional state of the individual. In contrast higher levels of others, such as dopamine, increases aggression. Dopamine is produced by the brain and affects heart rate and blood pressure. Researchers expected to find that persons who committed violent crimes have reduced levels of serotonin and higher levels of dopamine. This condition would have led to periods of greater activity including aggression if the person is prone to aggression.
In the early 21st century researchers continued investigating the relationship between neurochemicals and antisocial behavior, yet connections proved complicated. Studies showed, for example, that even body size could influence the effects of neurochemicals and behavior.
Researchers also looked at relationship between hormones (bodily substances that affect how organs in the body function), such as testosterone and cortisol, and criminal behavior. Testosterone is a sex hormone produced by male sexual organs that cause development of masculine body traits. Cortisol is a hormone produced by adrenal glands located next to the kidneys that effects how quickly food is processed by the digestive system. Higher cortisol levels lead to more glucose to the brain for greater energy, such as in times of stress or danger. Animal studies showed a strong link between high level of testosterone and aggressive behavior. Testosterone measurements in prison populations also showed relatively high levels in the inmates as compared to the US adult male population in general.
Studies of sex offenders in Germany showed that those who were treated to remove testosterone as part of their sentencing became repeat offenders only 3 percent of the time. This rate was in stark contrast to the usual 46 percent repeat rate. These and similar studies indicate testosterone can have a strong bearing on criminal behavior.
Cortisol is another hormone linked to criminal behavior. Research suggested that when the cortisol level is high a person's attention is sharp and he or she is physically active. In contrast, researchers found low levels of cortisol were associated with short attention spans. Lower activity levels, often linked to antisocial behavior including crime. Studies of violent adults have shown lower levels of cortisol; some believe this low level serves to numb an offender to the usual fear associated with committing a crime and possibly getting caught.
Studies by such 20th century investigators as the American criminologist Bernard Gluck and the British psychiatrist William Healy indicated that about one-fourth of a typical convict population is psychotic, neurotic, or emotionally unstable and another one-fourth is mentally deficient. These emotional and mental conditions don't automatically make people criminals, but do, it is believed, make them more prone to criminality. Recent studies of criminals have thrown further light on the kinds of emotional disturbances that may lead to criminal behavior.
It is difficult to isolate brain activity from social and psychological factors, as well as the effects of substance abuse, parental relations, and education. Yet since some criminals are driven by factors largely out of their control, punishment will not be an effective deterrent, help and treatment become the primary responses.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the psychiatric theory of the causes of crime.
2. Why aren't some criminals afraid of punishment as much as law-obiding people?
3. How was inner working of the brain tested?
4. What was the role of neurochemicals in the brain activity?
5. Do emotional and mental conditions automatically make people criminals?
Task 25. Replace words and word combinations in brackets by their English equivalents from the text above.
(1) In the 60s many psychiatrists believed that criminal behavior (сосредоточено в центральных частях мозга).
(2) (С развитием медицинских технологий) the search for biological causes of criminal behavior became more (усложненными).
(3) In 1986 psycologist Robert Hare (выявил связь между определенной мозговой деятельностью и антисоциальным поведением).
(4) Research on brain activity investigated the role of neurochemicals (веществ, вырабатываемых мозгом для запуска телесной деятельности) and hormones (и их влияние на преступное поведение).
(5) Studies indicated that increased levels of some neurochemicals, such as serotonin, (понижает агрессию).
(6) In contrast higher levels of others, such as dopamine, (увеличивает агрессию).
(7) This condition would have led to periods of greater activity including aggression if the person is (склонен к агрессии).
(8) Researchers also looked at relationship between hormones (телесные вещества, воздействующие на функционирование органов тела).
(9) (Исследования на животных) showed (сильную связь между высоким уровнем тестостерона и агрессивным поведением).
(10) Studies of the 20th century investigators (определили) that about one-fourth of a typical convict population is (психически, нервно или эмоционально нестабильными) and another one-fourth is (психически больными).
(11) These emotional and mental conditions (не делают автомвтически людей преступниками), but do, it is believed, make them (более склонными к преступности).
(12) (Поскольку преступниками движут факторы, не поддающиеся их контролю), punishment will not be (эффективным сдерживающим средством).
Task 26. Translate the following text into Russian in written form. Answer the questions after the text.
The Causes of Crime
Part III
Psychological theory of crime, as well as biological, associates criminal tendencies with a particular type of personality.
In the 20th century some psychologists, based on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, have suggested that a small proportion of people develop «immoral» or psychopathic personality. According to Freud, most of our moral standards come from self-imposed constraints, which are taught in early childhood. Due to the special nature of the relationship with parents, some children have not produced similar self-restraint, and thus there is no basic sense of morality. Psychopaths can be described as people who find pleasure in the violence itself. However, such features have far not all violators of the law.
A great number of scientists stick to the sociological theory. One of the most important aspects of the sociological approach is the emphasis on the relationship of conformity and deviation in different social contexts.
First, in modern societies there are many subcultures, and the norm of behavior in one subculture may be regarded as a deviation in the other.
Second, in societies there are strong differences between rich and poor, and these differences have extremely strong influence on the propensity to crime of various social groups. Some types of crimes — such as pickpocketing — are committed mostly by people from the poorest. Other types of crimes — such as embezzlement or tax evasion — by definition, committed by people, who have, on the contrary, high welfare.
Third, the very understanding of what constitutes criminal behavior may vary significantly.
American sociologist and criminologist Edwin Sutherland links crime to the fact that he called differential association The idea of differential association is very simple. In a society containing many subcultures, some social communities encourage illegal actions, and others — no. According to Sutherland, criminal behavior is absorbed mainly in the primary groups — in particular in peer groups. A person's peer group strongly influences a decision to commit a crime. For example, young boys and girls who do not fit into expected standards of academic achievement or participate in sports or social programs can commit a crime to attract attention to themselves. Drugs and alcohol impair judgment and reduce inhibitions (socially defined rules of behavior), giving a person greater courage to commit a crime. Deterrents, such as long prison sentences have little meaning when a person is high or drunk. Children of families who cannot afford adequate clothing or school supplies can also fall into the same trap. Researchers believe these youths may abandon schoolmates in favor of criminal gangs, since membership in a gang earns respect and status in a different manner. In gangs, antisocial behavior and criminal activity earns respect and street credibility.
People make choices about their behavior; some even consider a life of crime better than a regular job — believing crime brings in greater rewards, admiration, and excitement — at least until they are caught. Others get an adrenaline rush when successfully carrying out a dangerous crime. Many criminals believe that crime pays. Only 20 percent of the people involved in illegal activities ever get caught. Since prisons are overcrowded, criminals can usually bargain for lesser penalties by pleading guilty. Many of them are confident that they can escape arrest.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
1. How did Freud and his successors explain «immoral» personality?
2. How does sociological theory explain the relationship between conformity and deviation in different social contexts?
3. What is the idea of differential association?
4. Why do some people consider a life of crime better than a regular job?
Task 27. Replace words and word combinations in brackets by their English equivalents from the text above.
(1) Psycological theory of crime (связывает криминальные наклонности с определенным типом личности).
(2) According to Freud, most of our (моральных норм) come from (самопринуждений), which are taught in early childhood.
(3) Psychopats can be described as people who (находят удовольствие в самом насилии).
(4) One of the most important aspects of the (социального подхода) is the emphasis on the relationship of (приспосабливаемости и отклонения/конформизма и девиации) in (различных социальных контекстах).
(5) In modern societies there are many subcultures, and (норма поведения в одной субкультуре может рассматриваться как отклонение/девиация в другой).
(6) Such types of crime as (растрата) or (уклонение от налогов) — (по определению) committed by people, who have (высокий достаток).
(7) (Само понимание того, что представляет собой преступное поведение, может быть очень различным).
(8) In a society containing many subcultures, (некоторые социальное объединения поощряют незаконные действия).
(9) A person's (группа сверстников) strongly influences a decision to commit a crime.
(10) Membership in a gang (приносит уважение и положение) in a different manner.
(11) Since prisons are overcrowded, criminals can usually (рассчитывать на) lesser penalties by (в случае признания вины).
Task 28. Translate the following text into Russian in written form. Answer the questions after the text.
The Causes of Crime
Part IV
Many prominent criminologists of the 19th century, particularly those associated with the socialist movement, attributed crime mainly to the influence of poverty. They pointed out that persons who are unable to provide adequately for themselves and their families through normal legal channels are frequently driven to theft, burglary, prostitution, and other offences. The incidence of crime especially tends to rise in times of widespread unemployment. Present-day criminologists take a broader and deeper view; they place the blame for most crimes on the whole range of environmental conditions associated with poverty. The living conditions of the poor, particularly of those in slums, are characterized by overcrowding, lack of privacy, inadequate play space and recreational facilities, and poor sanitation. Such conditions engender feelings of deprivation and hopelessness and are conductive to crime as a means of escape. The feeling is encouraged by the example set by those who have escaped to what appears to be the better way of life made possible by crime.
Variables affecting crime are not readily measurable or applicable on all locations. There are numerous factors one needs to take into consideration.
· Some investigators have gathered evidence tending to show that crimes against person, such as homicide, are relatively more numerous in warm climate, whereas crimes against property, such as theft, are more frequent in cold regions. Other studies seem to indicate that the incidence of crime declines in direct ratio to drops in barometric pressure, to increased humidity, and to higher temperature.
· Lack of proper education and great role-models causes many to fail to distinguish right from wrong. In most cases offenders don't think they are doing something wrong, it seems right from their point of view.
· Lack of love and respect can be a major issue related to crime.
· Society bombards us with commercial values, making us want more and more material things, to the point when some would do anything (including criminal acts) to get them.
· TV violence.
· Sometimes individuals don't mean to cause harm, but are drawn into it by a chain of events that are beyond their control or influence.
· Poor parenting skills; erratic or harsh discipline; lack of parental control; parental conflicts; family dysfunction or breakdown; criminal, anti-social or alcoholic parents.
· Fatherlessness is also one of underestimated causes of crime.
· It has long been known by police officers that cold winter nights keep criminals off the streets and crime levels down. Crime scientists speculate that one of the hidden consequences of global warming will be an increase in street crime during mild winters. Studies have suggested that warmer temperatures boost aggression hormones such as epinephrine and testosterone.
· Fraudulent court rulings are one cause of extra crimes.
Since the 20th century the notion that crime can be explained by any single theory has fallen into disfavor among investigators. Instead, experts incline to so-called multiple factor, or multiple causation theories. They reason that crime springs from a multiplicity of conflicting and converging influences — biological, psychological, cultural, economic and political. The multiple causation explanations seem more credible than the earlier, simpler theories. An understanding of the causes of crime is still elusive, however, because the interrelationship of causes is difficult to determine.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
1. How do poverty and unemployment influence inclination to crime according to the ideas of the 19th century criminoligists associated with the socialist movement?
2. What are the ideas of present-day criminologists in this respect?
3. Are variables affecting crime measurable or applicable on all locations? Why?
4. Speak about numerous factors which lead to criminal behavor.
5. Can crime be explained by any single theory?
Task 29. Replace words and word combinations in brackets by their English equivalents from the text above.
(1) They pointed out that persons who (не в состоянии адекватно обеспечить себя и свои семьи легальным путем) are frequently driven to theft, burglary, prostitution, and (другие правонарушения).
(2) The (условия существования) of the poor, particularly those (в трущобах), are characterised by (перенаселенностью, отсутствием личного пространства, неадекватными условиями для игры и отдыха и отсутствием санитарных норм).
(3) (Отсутствие соответствующего образования и примеров для подражания) causes many (неумение отличить добро от зла).
(4) (Телевидение навязывает нам коммерческие ценности), making us want more and more material things.
(5) Sometimes individuals (не хотят причинить вреда), but are drawn into it by (стечением обстоятельств, которые выше их).
(6) (Безотцовщина) is also one of underestimated causes of crime.
(7) Experts (склоняются) to so-called (множественный фактор), or multiple causation theories.
THE CAUSES OF CRIME
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