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Нажимая кнопку "Продолжить", я принимаю политику конфиденциальности

Кашинцева И.Л.

А64	Английский язык: учебное пособие для курсантов и студентов юридического факультета. – Рязань: Академия ФСИН России, 2013. – 147 с.

 

Учебное пособие составлено на основе рабочей программы учебной дисциплины.

Обсуждено и утверждено на заседании кафедры иностранных языков 12 февраля 2013 г., протокол № 6.

 

 

Заведующий обеспечивающей кафедрой

кандидат педагогических наук, доцент                                          Г.Б. Андреева

 

Учебное издание

КАШИНЦЕВА Ирина Львовна

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Учебное пособие

Технический редактор Л.И. Семочкина Подписано в печать   Формат 60 х 84 1/16. Бумага офсетная. Гарнитура Times. Печ. л. 9,2. Тираж экз. Заказ № _____.	Редакционно-издательский отдел Академии ФСИН России 390036, г. Рязань, ул. Сенная, 1 Отпечатано: Отделение полиграфии РИО Академии ФСИН России 390036, г. Рязань, ул. Сенная, 1
	ББК Ш143.21(0) р30 © Кашинцева И.Л., 2013 © Академия ФСИН России, 2013

 

 

Пояснительная записка

 

Предлагаемое учебное пособие предназначено для курсантов и студентов юридического факультета, специализирующихся в области гражданского права и уголовного права, закончивших первый этап изучения курса английского языка в вузе «Иностранный язык для общих целей».

Пособие имеет ярко выраженную профессиональную направленность и ставит своей целью сформировать у обучаемых навыки и умения самостоятельного чтения оригинальной литературы по специальности, умение быстро извлекать необходимую информацию в пределах предлагаемой тематики, аннотировать и реферировать текст профессионального профиля в оригинале. Эти цели определяют структуру пособия, подбор языкового материала, построение систем упражнений.

Учебно-методическое пособие включает 11 разделов, посвященных праву и истории права, видам права (государственное, административное, уголовное, гражданское), уголовному и гражданскому судопроизводству англоязычных стран. В качестве основного материала для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы в каждом разделе предусмотрен опорный текст. Он предназначен для изучающего чтения и снабжен системой лексических и грамматических упражнений. Целью грамматических заданий является иллюстрация употребления конструкций, встречающихся в опорном тексте, их осмысление и закрепление.

В пределах раздела, кроме опорного текста, представлены разнообразные тексты различной степени сложности. Многотекстовость позволяет использовать разноцелевое чтение, а именно: просмотровое, ознакомительное, поисковое, изучающее.

 

 

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

 

Lesson 1. Grammar: Sequence Of Tenses……………………………... Text A: What Is Law……………………………………………………. Text B: Kinds Of Law In The United States………………………………..	6 10 17
Lesson 2. Grammar: Conditional Sentences…………………………… Text A: History Of The Law…………………………………………….. Text B: Law In Ancient Greece And Rome……………………………... Text C: How Did The British Law Develop?............................................ Text D: The Magna Carta……………………………………………….	23 26 28 29 30
Lesson 3. Grammar: Complex Object, Revision Of Perfect Forms, Passive Voice…………………………………………………………….. Text A: Constitutional Law And Its Nature……………………………... Text B: Characteristics Of Constitutions………………………………... Text C: Unitary, Federal, And Regionalist Systems……………………. Text D: Executives And Legislatures……………………………………	34 37 40 41 43
Lesson 4. Grammar: Complex Subject, Revision Of Perfect Forms, Passive Voice…………………………………………………………….. Text A: Administrative Law…………………………………………….. Text B: Judicial Review Of Administration…………………………......	54 57 60
Lesson 5. Grammar: Functions Of The Verb “To Be”………………… Text A: Criminal Law…………………………………………………… Text B:  Elements Of Crime……………………………………………..	67 69 72
Lesson 6. Grammar: Functions Of The Verb “To Have”…………….. Text A: Types Of Crimes………………………………………………… Text B: How Are Crimes Classified?.......................................................	76 77 80
Lesson 7. Grammar: Revision Of Ing-Forms, Passive Voice Text A: Civil Law……………………………………………………….. Text B: Civil Proceedings……………………………………………….. Text C: Civil Courts……………………………………………………...	88 90 90
Lesson 8. Grammar: Revision Of Tenses, Complex Subject, Complex Object, Functions Of The Verbs “To Be” And “To Have” Text A: The Law And The Family (Marriage Law)……………………..	95
Lesson 9. Grammar: Revision Of The Functions Of The Infinitive   Text A: How Is The Law Enforced?.......................................................... Text B: What Is A Court?.................................................................................... Text C: Criminal And Civil Cases………………………………………. Text D: What Is The Procedure In A Criminal Action?............................... Text E: What Is The Procedure In A Civil Action?......................................	107 110 112 116 118
Lesson 10. Grammar: Revision Of Tenses, Complex Subject, Participle I, Participle Ii, Functions Of The Verbs “To Be” And “To Have” Text A: Civil Rights And Liberties……………………………………… Text B: Disabled Americans……………………………………………..	124 131
Lesson 11. Grammar: Revision Of Tenses, Conditional Sentences, Complex Subject, Complex Object Text A: The Legal Profession…………………………………………… Text B: Entering The Profession……………………………………..….	136 144

LESSON 1

 

GRAMMAR: SEQUENCE OF TENSES

TEXT A: WHAT IS LAW

TEXT B: KINDS OF LAW IN THE UNITED STATES

 

Sequence of Tenses (Согласование времен)

Правило согласования времен распространяется на придаточные дополнительные предложения. Это правило заключается в следующем:

1. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в настоящем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного предложения может стоять в любом требуемом по смыслу времени.

 

	Главное предложение	Придаточное предложение
Настоящее время   Present Indefinite	He knows that Он знает, что	Настоящее время	I am a student of the Law department. Я студент юридического факультета.
		Прошедшее время	I was a student of the Law department. Я был студентом юридического факультета.
		Будущее время	I shall be a student of the Law department. Я буду студентом юридического факультета

 

2. Если же сказуемое главного предложения стоит в Past Indefinite (прошедшем времени), то сказуемое дополнительного придаточного предложения тоже должно стоять в одном из прошедших времен.

	Главное  предложение	Придаточное предложение
Прошедшее время   Past Indefinite	He knew that Он знал, что	Past Indefinite (переводится настоящим временем)	I was a student of the Law department. Я студент юридического факультета.
		Past Perfect (переводится прошедшим временем)	I had been a student of the Law department. Я был студентом юридического факультета.
		Future-in-the-Past (переводится будущим временем)	I should be a student of the Law department. Я буду студентом юридического факультета

 

Если действия, выраженные сказуемыми обоих предложений, совершаются одновременно, то в придаточном предложении глагол-сказуемое употребляется в форме Past Indefinite или Past Continuous, которые в данном случае переводятся на русский язык глаголом в форме настоящего времени.

He said that at your seminars you discussed some problems of law.	Он сказал, что на семинарах вы обсуждаете проблемы права.
They said that he was making a report.	Они сказали, что он делает доклад (сейчас).

 

Если действие, выраженное сказуемым придаточного предложения, предшествовало действию, выраженному сказуемым главного предложения, то в придаточном предложении употребляется Past Perfect или Past Perfect Continuous, которые всегда переводятся глаголом в форме прошедшего времени.

 

He said that he had written his article.	Он сказал, что написал свою статью.

Если в придаточном предложении речь идет о будущем, то употребляются формы should и would вместо shall и will. Эта форма английского глагола называется Future-in-the-Past и переводится русским глаголом в будущем времени:

He said that he would make a report.	Он сказал, что сделает доклад.

Правило согласования времен соблюдается, если дополнительное придаточное предложение, в свою очередь, является сложноподчиненным предложением с придаточным обстоятельственным условия или времени, зависимым от другого предложения со сказуемым, выраженным глаголом в форме Past Indefinite или Future-in-the-Past.

 

She knew that she would do it if she had time.	Она знала, что сделает это, если у нее будет время.
He said that he would answer the letter immediately when he received it.	Он сказал, что немедленно ответит на письмо, когда его получит.

Согласование времен не соблюдается:

1. В придаточных дополнительных предложениях, в состав сказуемого которых входят модальные глаголы must, should:

 

He said that you must do it as soon as possible.

Он сказал, что ты должен сделать это как можно скорее.

2. В тех случаях, когда сказуемое придаточного дополнительного предложения выражено глаголом в сослагательном наклонении:

 

Reality demanded that the work of higher and special secondary school be further improved.

Жизнь требовала, чтобы работа высшей и специальной средней школы была в дальнейшем улучшена.

 

3. Когда в дополнительном придаточном предложении имеется в виду общеизвестный факт или истина:

 

The teacher told his pupils that water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade.

Учитель сказал ученикам, что вода замерзает при температуре 00 С.

Task 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to Sequence of Tenses:

1. I knew that you were ill. 2. I knew that you had been ill. 3. We found that she left home at 8 o’clock every morning. 4. We found that she had left home at 8o’clock that morning. 5. When he learnt that his son always received excellent marks in all the subjects at school, he was very pleased. 6. When he learnt that his son had received an excellent mark at school, he was very pleased. 7. We didn’t know where our friends went every evening. 8. We didn’t know where our friends had gone. 9. She said that her best friend was a doctor. 10. She said that her best friend had been a doctor. 11. I didn’t know that you worked at the Hermitage. 12. I didn’t know that you had worked at the Hermitage.

Task 2. Choose the right form of the verb given in brackets:

1. He said that he (is staying, was staying) at the “Ritz” Hotel. 2. They realized that they (lost, had lost) their way in the dark. 3. He asked me where I (study, studied). 4. I thought that I (shall finish, should finish) my work at that time. 5. He says that he (works, worked) at school two year ago. 6. Victor said he (is, was) very busy. 7. My friend asked me who (is playing, was playing) the piano in the sitting-room. 8. He said he (will come, would come) to the station to see me off. 9. I was sure that he (posted, had posted) the letter. 10. I think the weather (will be, would be) fine next week. I hope it (will not change, would not change) for the worse. 11. I knew that he (is, was) a very clever man. 12. I want to know what he (has bought, had bought) for her birthday. 13. I asked my sister to tell me what she (has seen, had seen) at the museum.

TEXT A

 

Before reading the text 1) learn to pronounce the following words correctly:

[o:] law enforce informal important order organized	[o] phenomena economics moral belong property conduct prosecute quarrel authority	[i] descriptive prescriptive particular administrative decision principal judicial interest	[e] penalty together protect necessary develop effective regulate
[æ] natural family value action bankruptcy neutrality establish gravity	[ ] government custom cultural suffer function company couple custody	[i:] illegal penal freedom peace belief guarantee	[ju:] community refuse produce duty
[iә] experience sphere	[ә :] refer work person	[eә] various rarely area	[aiә] society

2) translate the following international words and give more than one translation of them if possible:

various, authority, phenomena, limits, social, guarantee, value, function, order, administer, civil, constitutional, legal, structure, company, business, formation, registration, special, general, labour, aspect, condition, industrial, state, neutrality, reflect, function, private, contract.

WHAT IS LAW

Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. Are laws for ordinary people or for lawyers?

2. Do you always observe the law?

3. Do you think laws change in the course of time?

 

The English word “law” refers to limits upon various forms of behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people or even natural phenomena usually behave. An example is the rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent laws of economics.

Other laws are prescriptive – they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers that prescribe how fast we should drive. In all societies relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that’s informal rules of social and moral behaviour. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power. Thus we may say that the law is the body of rules with authority (power) to govern the actions and relations of people in an organized political community or among states. Laws reflect the values and beliefs of people. Laws organize society and guarantee peace and good order.

There are various spheres of law. Administrative law is the area of law which is related to the functions and powers of the government organizations and how they operate in practice to administer government policy. Criminal law is the law relating to crime. It studies illegal conduct for which a person may be prosecuted and punished by the state. Civil law is the law relating to the rights and duties of private persons. It deals with judging private quarrels between people. In many countries civil law is based on Roman Law. Constitutional law is the law relating to the legal structure of government in a state. It defines the principal organs of government and their relation to each other and to the individual. Common law is the body of law based on custom which is administered and developed by the courts in judicial decisions. Company law is the area of law which is related to businesses organized as companies. It regulates the formation, registration, operation and bankruptcy of companies of all kinds. Family law is the area of law which is related to the organization of the family and the legal relations of its members. It also settles problems of divorce. Special courts decide how to divide the couple's property, and who will get custody of children. Land law is the area of law which deals with rights and interests related to owning and using land. Land is the most important form of property, so the name for the law of property in general. Labour law is the area of law relating to the employment of workers. It includes their contracts and conditions of work, trade unions and the legal aspects of industrial relations. Penal law is that part of law which deals with punishment of persons found guilty by the court. It studies different penal systems and defines effective penal policy. International law is the system of law which regulates relations between states. It deals with such subjects as: the freedom of the seas; the rules of war and neutrality, diplomatic law. The United Nations Organizations has the right to force its member countries to obey international law.

TASKS

Task 1. Read the following words correctly:

to refer, phenomena, to behave, behaviour, custom, consistent, moral, description, value, prescriptive, order, to guarantee, sphere, administrative, conduct, criminal, to punish, constitutional, common, company, duty, to regulate, divorce, bankruptcy, legal, property, to divide, custody, to obey, employment, to impose, to prosecute, penal, society, Roman, contract, to define, labour, civil.

 

Task 2. Translate the following noun groups into Russian:

speed limits, law enforcement, government policy, government organizations, company law, land law, the couple’s property, labour law, trade unions, family law, member countries (states).

 

Task 3. Read the following words and derivatives and state what part of speech the given words are and translate them into Russian:

to behave – behaviour – behavioral; to prescribe – prescriptive – prescriptions; economy – economic – economical – economics; to impose – imposition; penal – penalty – to penalize; society – social – resocialization; to relate – relations – relatives; to govern – government – governmental; authority – authoritative – to authorize; crime – a crime – criminality; to administer – administrative – administrator – administration; to punish – punishment – punitive; to define – definite – indefinite – definition; a principle – principal – a principal; a judge – to judge – judgment – judicial – judiciary; to constitute – constitution – constitutional; bankrupt – bankruptcy; custody – custodial; act – action – activity; to employ – employee – employment; guilt – guilty; to force – to enforce – enforcement; to believe – belief.

 

Task 4 . Find the words with the similar meaning among the following:

law, society, govern, power, body, belief, sphere, deal with, punish, principal, relation, couple, behaviour, obey, community, administer, authority, organ, custom, field, penalize, main, connection, pair, conduct, religion, consider, observe.

 

 Task 5 .  Find the words with the opposite meaning among the following:

descriptive, consistent, social, formal, organize, practice, prosecute, legal, private, quarrel, divorce, divide, land, prescriptive, inconsistent, individual, informal, disorganize, theory, defend, illegal, common, peace, marriage, unite, sea.

Task 6. Translate the following words and word combinations into Russian:

forms of behaviour; natural phenomena; to impose limits (punishment, penalty); relations between people; informal rules; to regulate relations; organized political community; to reflect values; to guarantee peace and good order; administrative law; criminal law; penal law; constitutional law; common law; company law; family law; land law; labour law; international law; to obey law; private property; to find quality; effective penal policy; conditions of work; to deal with; freedom of the seas; to force member countries to obey international law; the United Nations Organization.

Task 7 . Translate the words and word combinations from Russian into English:

общественное и моральное поведение, отношения между людьми, неформальные правила, применять законы, система правил, отражать ценности и убеждения, гарантировать мир и порядок, функции и полномочия правительственных организаций, противоправное поведение преступное поведение, осуществлять политику правительства, может быть обвинен и наказан государством, права и обязанности частных лиц, иметь дело с чем-либо (касаться чего-либо), уголовное право, гражданское право, уголовно-исполнительное право, конституционное право, правовые отношения членов семьи, решать проблемы развода, делить имущество, земельное право, владение и пользование землей, наем рабочей силы, условия труда, признать виновным в судебном порядке, эффективная уголовно-исполнительная практика (политика), уголовно-исполнительные системы, определять политику, регулировать отношения между государствами, дипломатическое право.

TEXT B

Constitutional Law

Constitutions are the supreme sources of law. The federal Constitution of the USA is said to be “the supreme law of the land.” This means that any state law - including a part of a state constitution - is void to the extent that it conflicts with the federal Constitution. The Supreme Court of the United States is the final interpreter of the federal Constitution and each state supreme court is the final authority on the meaning of its state constitution.

The federal and state constitutions allocate powers: (1) between the people and their governments, (2) between state governments and the federal go­vernment, and (3) among the branches of the governments.

The federal Constitution is the main instrument for allocating powers between persons and their governments. It does this with its first ten amendments to the constitution, called the Bill of Rights, which protect citizens from certain acts of their governments. Important rights of citizens are included in the Bill of Rights. They are:

Ø freedom of religion,

Ø freedom of speech, press, and peaceable assembly,

Ø security in person and property against unreasonable searches and seizures,

Ø right to remain silent if accused of a crime, and to have a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury,

Ø protection from any cruel or unusual punishment if convicted of a crime,

Ø right to fair compensation for private property taken by the government for any public purpose, and

Ø protection from deprivation of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.

The federal Constitution allocates certain governmental powers to the federal government and certain other powers to the state governments.

State and federal constitutions allocate governmental powers among the three branches of government: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. Constitutions do this to create a system of checks and balances among the branches so that no branch of government becomes too powerful.

Statutory Law

The Congress of the United States and federal legislatures are composed of elected representatives of the people. Acting on behalf of their citizens, these legislatures may enact new statutes.

All state legislatures have delegated some of their legislative authority to local governments. Thus, towns, cities, and counties can legislate in their own geographic areas on matters over which the state has given them authority. This legislation is created by a town or city council or by a county board or county commission. Legislation of this type is usually called an ordinance rather than a statute.

To be valid, the statute or ordinance must not conflict with the federal Constitution or state constitution.

Administrative Law

The federal, state, and local legislatures all create administrative agencies.

Although they are created by legislatures, administrative agencies are usually operated by the executive branch of the government. Thus, the President, governor, or mayor will supervise the agency’s activities. For example, the United States Congress created the Internal Revenue Service (an agency) and directed that the President appoint and supervise the staff of the agency.

The rules and regulations established by an administrative agency generally have the force of law. Like statutes, the regulations can be reviewed by courts to determine whether they are constitutional. In addition, the courts may invalidate a rule or regulation if it is beyond the scope of powers delegated by the legislature.

Case Law

Case law is created by the judicial branches of governments. Each state creates case law through its state courts. Similarly, federal courts establish federal case law. Case law is usually made after a trial has concluded and one of the parties has appealed the case. This may result in a review of parts of the trial by a higher court - a process called appellate review. When the appellate court publishes its opinion on a case, that opinion may state, and thereby create, new case law.

The effectiveness of case law arises out of the doctrine of stare decisis (Latin for «to abide by, or adhere to decided cases»). This doctrine requires that once case law is established, it must be followed by lower courts in other similar cases. Stare decisis generally does not strictly bind appellate courts because they can overturn their own case law when justified by new conditions or better understanding of the issues.

While courts are the final authority on the interpretation of constitutions and the constitutionality of statutes, rules, and ordinances, they are not the final authority on the content and meaning of such legislation. Legislative bodies can, in effect, nullify a court decision interpreting its statute, ordinance, or rule by abolishing or rewriting the statute or amending the constitution.

TASKS

Task 1 . Translate the following words, state their part of speech:

to differ, different, difference, indifference, indifferent; to express, expression, expressive; to decide, decision, decisive; authority, to authorize; to deprive, deprivation; to legislate, legislation, legislative, legislator, legislature; to administer, administrative, to administrate, administration; to establish, establishment; effect, effective, effectiveness.

 

Task 2. Read and translate the following word combinations:

legal system, the source of law, important differences, sovereign states, elected representatives, amendments to the constitution, federal legislatures, deprivation of liberty, due process of law, appellate review, legislative authority, executive power, court decision, to enact statutes, to convict of a crime, to supervise the activity of an agency.

 

Conditional Sentences

Условные придаточные предложения в английском языке вводятся союзами if – если, unless – если не, а также словами:

 

providing (that) provided (that) supposing (that) on condition (that) in case

при условии, что; если

 

В зависимости от характера выраженного условия (реально это условие или нет), условные предложения делятся на реальные и нереальные.

Реальные условные предложения выражают выполнимое условие, относящееся к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему времени. В реальных условных предложениях, английских и русских, глагол употребляется в форме изъявительного наклонения.

 

E.g. If he is busy, I don’t come to him. Если он бывает занят, я не подхожу к нему.

If he was busy, I didn’t come to him. Если он бывал занят, я не подходил к нему.

If he is busy, I shall not come to him. Если он будет занят, я не подойду к нему.

 

Нереальные условные предложения выражают либо маловероятное, либо совсем нереальное, невыполнимое действие. В отличие от русских нереальных условных предложений, где и маловероятное и невыполнимое условие всегда выражается одной и той же формой глагола, совпадающей по форме с прошедшим временем в сочетании с частицей “бы”, английские нереальные условные предложения по способу выражения делятся на 2 типа:

 

 1-ый тип – предложения, выражающие маловероятное или нереальное условие, относящееся к настоящему или будущему времени.

 

Условное придаточное предложение	Главное предложение
Форма сослагательного наклонения совпадает с формой Past Indefinite.	would или should + Indefinite Infinitive (без частицы to)
1. If he came here now, we should ask him for help. 2. If he had free time next Sunday, he would help us. 1. Если бы он пришел сейчас сюда, мы попросили бы его помочь. 2. Если бы у него было свободное время в следующее воскресенье, он помог бы нам.

 

2-ой тип – предложения, выражающие нереальные (невыполнимые) условия, относящиеся к прошедшему времени (упущенная возможность в прошлом).

 

Условное придаточное предложение	Главное предложение
Форма сослагательного наклонения совпадает с формой Past Perfect.	would или should + Perfect Infinitive (без частицы to)
1. If he had come here yesterday we should have asked him for help. (But he didn’t come here yesterday) 2. If he had had free time last Sunday, he would have helped us. (But he had no free time). 1. Если бы он пришел сюда вчера, мы бы попросили его помочь нам. (Но он не приходил сюда вчера) 2. Если бы у него было свободное время в прошлое воскресенье, он помог бы нам. (Но у него не было свободного времени)

 

TEXT A

Before reading the text 1) learn to pronounce the following words correctly:

[o:] divorce false law	[o] property adopt	[i] since business guilty inflict injury victim	[i:] legal thief people
[æ] damage systematic tablets manage paragraph	[e ] comprehensive settlement revenge death	[a:] carve archives	[ou] code owner lower
[ ] government punishment	[ә:] murder earliest circumstance personal	[ei] reign ancient statement

2) translate into Russian:

to adopt rules, to govern relationships, to find smb. guilty of a crime, to inflict damages, statement of laws, personal property, the principle of revenge, a harsh punishment.

 

History of the Law

Since the time when people first began living together, rules have been adopted to protect individuals and groups and to govern their relationships. Even the most ancient peoples compiled Law codes. A law code is a more or less systematic and comprehensive written statement of laws. The oldest law code is tablets from the ancient archives of the city of Ebla (now Tell Mardikh, Syria), which date to about 2400 BC.

The earliest written law was also the Law Code of Hammurabi, a king who reigned over Babylon (on the territory of modern Iraq) around 2000 B.C.

Hammurabi’s Code had 282 paragraphs and was carved in cuneiform on a pillar made of very hard stone. This pillar was set up in a temple to the Babylonian god Marduk so that everyone could read it.

After the fall of Babylon in the 16th century B.C. the pillar was lost for centuries. It was found again during archeological expedition among the ruins of the Persian city of Susa in 1901. Now the pillar is in Paris in the Louvre museum.

The scientists managed to read Hammurabi’s Code. It dealt with many of the same subjects as our legal system today. It included real and personal property law (the rights of slave owners and slaves, inheritance and property contracts), family law (divorce and marriage), criminal law (crimes and punishment of crimes), and business law (settlement of debts and even regulations about taxes and the prices of goods).

The Code gave very harsh punishments for almost all crimes. Not only murderers but also thieves and those guilty of false accusation faced the death penalty. The punishment was based on the principle of revenge: an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. The criminals had to receive the same injuries and damages they had inflicted upon their victims.

Nevertheless, the penalty according to Hammurabi’s laws could not be harder than the crime. The code banned the tradition of kidnapping women as brides. The laws of Hammurabi’s Code took into account the circumstances of the offender as well as the offence itself. For example, if a citizen of a lower rank lost in a civil case he had to pay fewer penalties than an aristocrat, though if he won he also was awarded less.

The laws set forth in Hammurabi’s Code were written by the King - a divinely inspired authority. Only the King could change such laws. This absolutism of power in the monarch was typical of legal systems until the time of the Greeks around 300 B.C.

 

TASKS

 

TEXT B

TEXT C

TEXT D

THE MAGNA CARTA

In 1215, the English barons forced the English King John I to sign and adopt the Magna Carta, which provided for them certain guarantees and protection against unreasonable acts of the king. Later, the Magna Carta was revised, and other documents, such as the English Bill of Rights (1689), were adopted.

When the thirteen American colonies broke away from Great Britain after the Revolutionary War, the colonists adopted the principles of the Magna Carta and the Common law. These principles became the foundation of the legal system of US federal government and of all the states.

Today, the two great systems of law in the Western world are the Common law of the English-speaking world and the Roman civil law found on the continent of Europe. Both systems have the same objectives, but they differ in origins and methods. The Roman civil law originated in codes (systematic collections of written rules of law) imposed on the people by the emperors of ancient Rome. In contrast, the English common law originated in decisions of judges based on widely held customs of the people. Also, English common law uniquely provides for trial by a jury of one's peers (equals).

The English colonies in America recognized the English common law as governing until July 4, 1776. After that date, existing rules were retained, but further changes in the law were made in the courts of the newly formed American country. The Common Law, with its emphasis on judges making rules of law, continues to serve well till now.

Answer the questions:

1. When was the Magna Carta adopted?

2. What did the Magna Carta provide?

3. What principles of law did first American states adopt after they broke away from Great Britain?

4. How do the two great systems of law, Common law and the Roman civil law, differ?

Match the following:

common law	completion of an agreement as promised
equity	body of regulations imposed by emperors of ancient Rome
Magna Carta	great charter of liberties for English people
Roman civil law	form of justice administered when there is no suitable remedy available in common law courts
specific performance	case law, reflecting customs of the people

Translate into English :

1. Сегодня в мире имеются две больших системы права – Общее право в англоязычных странах и Римское гражданское право в Европе и ряде других стран. 2. Обе системы имеют одинаковые цели, но они отличаются по происхождению и методам. 3. Римское гражданское право основано на кодексах, принятых импе­раторами древнего Рима. 4. Английское общее право основано на предыдущих решениях судей. 5. Общее право предусматривает использование суда присяжных.

 

 

Vocabulary

 

administer justice - отправлять, осуществлять, обеспечивать правосудие

appeal - обжаловать

archeological expedition - археологическая экспедиция

archive  - архив

authority - власть

award - присужденное наказание, решение (судей)

ban - запрещать

Bill of Rights - Билль о правах

break away - отделиться

carry over - переносить

carve - высекать, вырезать

case - судебное дело

chancellor - судья в суде лорда-канцлера

civil case - гражданское дело

clergyman - священник

Common law - Общее право

compile - составлять (книгу, сборник и т.д.)

comprehensive - полный

controversy - конфликт, спор

corpus - лат. свод законов, кодекс

Courts of Equity - суды справедливости

cuneiform - клинопись

deal with - иметь дело с чём-л.; рассматривать что-л.

death penalty - смертная казнь

deliver - уступать, сдавать, отдавать

divinely inspired - божественный, священный

Draco ['dreikou] - Драконт, афинский законодатель

Emperor Napoleon - император Наполеон

enforce - осуществлять, приводить в исполнение

enslave - делать рабом, порабощать

equitable - справедливый, объективный

equitable relief - средство судебной защиты по праву справедливости

fairness - честность, справедливость, законность

false accusation - лживое обвинение

feudal lord - феодал

force - заставлять, вынуждать

good conscience -  чистая совесть

handle - справляться с чeм-л.

harsh - суровый

homicide - убийство

inflict - наносить

inheritance - наследование

injury - повреждение

Justinian Code - Кодекс Юстиниана

medieval - средневековый

monetary damages - денежный ущерб

natural law - естественный закон

offence - нарушение, преступление

offender - преступник

paragraph - параграф, пункт; статья закона

parcel of land - участок земли

peer - равный, ровня

penalty - наказание, взыскание, штраф

pillar - столб, колонна

precedent - прецедент

prosperity - процветание

punishment - кара, наказание

real property - недвижимость

refer - направлять; отсылать

regulation - правило, регламент, предписание, постановление

reign over - царствовать

relief - помощь

remedy - средство судебной защиты, средство защиты права

repeal - аннулировать, отменять закон

retain - сохранять

revenge - месть

set forth - излагать, формулировать

settle a dispute - разрешать спор

slave owner - рабовладелец

specific performance - исполнение договора в натуре

sponsorship - покровительство

statement - изложение, заявление, утверждение

sue - возбуждать дело, судиться

take into account - принимать во внимание

temple - храм

the Magna Carta - Великая Хартия Вольностей

thief (мн.ч. thieves) - вор

trial - судебное разбирательство; судебный процесс, суд

trial jury - суд присяжных

trivial - 1) обычный, тривиальный; 2) незначительный

unreasonable - неразумный, необдуманный

victim - жертва

wrong - правонарушение, преступление

 

LESSON 3

GRAMMAR: COMPLEX OBJECT, REVISION OF PERFECT FORMS, PASSIVE VOICE

TEXT A: CONSTITUTIONAL LAW AND ITS NATURE

TEXT B: CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTITUTIONS

TEXT C: UNITARY, FEDERAL, AND REGIONALIST SYSTEMS

TEXT D: EXECUTIVES AND LEGISLATURES

 

 

TEXT A

TASKS

Task 1. Find the words with the similar meaning among the following:

sense, power, basic, nation, matter, community, fundamental, authority, affair, method, offspring, way, purpose, body, state, society, result, meaning, aim, important, set, organization, century, law, goal, age, agency, significant, rule.

Task 2. Find the words with the opposite meaning among the following:

public, written, fundamental, to include, to establish, theory, legal, success, to disestablish, private, secondary, complex, rare, unwritten, religious, simple, failure, to exclude, secular, frequent, practice, illegal.

EXECUTIVES AND LEGISLATURES

TEXT D

TASKS

Статья 10.

1. Государственная власть в Российской Федерации осуществляется на основе разделения на законодатель­ную, исполнительную и судебную. Органы законода­тельной, исполнительной и судебной власти самостоя­тельны.

Статья 19.

1. Все равны перед законом и судом.

2. Государство гарантирует равенство прав и свобод человека и гражданина независимо от пола, расы, на­циональности, языка, происхождения, имущественного и должностного положения, места жительства, отно­шения к религии, убеждений, принадлежности к об­щественным объединениям, а также других обстоя­тельств. Запрещаются любые формы ограничения прав граждан по признакам социальной, расовой, националь­ной, языковой или религиозной принадлежности.

Статья 81.

1. Президент Российской Федерации избирается на пять лет гражданами Российской Федерации на основе всеобщего равного и прямого избирательного права при тайном голосовании.

2. Президентом Российской Федерации может быть избран гражданин Российской Федерации не моложе 35 лет, постоянно проживающий в Российской Феде­рации не менее 10 лет.

3. Одно и то же лицо не может занимать должность Президента Российской Федерации более двух сроков подряд.

Статья 95.

1. Федеральное собрание состоит из двух палат – Совета Федерации и Государственной Думы.

2. В Совет Федерации входят по два представителя от каждого субъекта Российской Федерации: по одному от представительного и исполнительного органов государственной власти.

3. Государственная Дума состоит из 450 депутатов.
Статья 118.

1. Правосудие в Российской Федерации осуществ­ляется только судом.

2. Судебная власть осуществляется посредством кон­ституционного, гражданского, административного и уголовного судопроизводства.

Task 8. Complete the following text with the following words and phrases: jurisprudence, electoral districts, provisions, laissez- faire, invalidate, amendments, freedoms, voluntary abortion, procedural, privacy, suspect, segregation, accused, liberties, deprived

Until the New Deal the court used the ... of the Consti­tution concerning individual rights primarily to protect property and economic ... . That use helped to preserve a system of ... economy against state and federal efforts to interfere with the market. In particular, the “due process” clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth ... (no person shall be ... of “life, liberty, or property, without due process of law”) were often employed by the court to ... social legislation. In the second half of the 20th century the posture of the court has changed entirely. The court today seldom concerns itself with economic liberties. It is engaged rather in protecting citizens’ noneconomic ... as well as their equality before the law, focusing on issues such as civil and political rights. ... rights in the criminal and administrative processes, or the right to ... . In the course of developing this new ... the court has declared unconstitutional ... in the schools and malapportionment in ...; it has defended the rights of the ... and of the ...; it has liberalized ... .

Vocabulary

amendment – поправка (к кон­ституции, закону, в доку­менте, в договоре), измене­ние, дополнение

assumption – принятие на себя (ответственности, обязанности, власти); допущение, предположение, презумп­ция

ballot – баллотировка; выборы; голосование; общее коли­чество поданных голосов

bicameral – двухпалатный (о парламенте)

binding – обязывающий, обяза­тельный, имеющий обяза­тельную силу; связующий

bylaw – подзаконный акт

contender – соперник (на выбо­рах), кандидат, претендент (на пост)

convention – съезд; конвент; конвенция; обычай

delegated legislation – делеги­рованное законодательство

devolution – переход или пере­дача права, обязанности, правового титула или дол­жности; деволюция, огра­ниченная автономия (тре­буемая для Шотландии, Уэльса)

enactment – издание, принятие (закона), установление в законном порядке

enforceable – могущий быть принудительно осуществ­ленным в судебном поряд­ке; обеспеченный правовой санкцией

enforcement – давление, при­нуждение; принудительное применение (права, зако­на); принудительное осу­ществление или взыскание (по суду); обеспечение пра­вовой санкцией

exiguous – малый, незначи­тельный, скудный

framework – структура, систе­ма; рамки, пределы

grant – отчуждение; пожалова­ние; дарение; дарственная; дотация, субсидия

involuntary – невольный, при­нудительный, непреднаме­ренный

laissez - faire – невмешательство (правительства в дела час­тных лиц, особенно в час­тный бизнес и торговлю)

Low Countries – Нидерланды, Бельгия и Люксембург

presiding officer – председа­тель, председательствую­щее лицо

provision – условие, постанов­ление, положение (догово­ра, закона)

recourse – просьба о помощи; прибежище, пристанище, убежище

segregation – отделение, выде­ление, изоляция, сегрега­ция

servitude – рабство; порабоще­ние; каторжные работы; каторга

suffrage – право голоса, изби­рательное право, голосова­ние; голос

suspensory veto – приостанав­ливающее вето

to abrogate – отменять, анну­лировать; упразднять

to adhere – придерживаться, соблюдать; присоединяться

to apportion – соразмерно рас­пределять; разделять, де­лить; устанавливать норму представительства

to assert – утверждать, заяв­лять, отстаивать, защи­щать, доказывать

to buttress – подпирать, под­держивать, усиливать, ук­реплять, подкреплять

to conform – согласоваться; со­ответствовать; подчинять­ся (правилам)

to countenance – одобрять, раз­решать; давать санкцию

to delimit – производить делими­тацию, определять границы

to deprive – лишать; отрешать от должности

to emulate – стремиться пре­взойти; конкурировать, со­перничать, соревноваться

to endow with – давать; предо­ставлять; даровать; обле­кать (полномочиями)

to enforce – принудительно применять (право, закон); принудительно осуществ­лять (или взыскивать) в судебном порядке

to entrust – вверять; возлагать, поручать (to; with)

to envisage – предусматривать

to grant – отчуждать, переда­вать право собственности; пожаловать; дарить; разре­шать; предоставлять

to have recourse to – прибегать, обращаться к чему-либо

to invalidate – лишать закон­ной силы, делать, призна­вать недействительным, несостоятельным; сводить на нет

to pledge – давать заверение, обязательство

to prescribe – предписывать, назначать (наказание)

to rectify – исправлять, вносить исправление, устранять ошибку

to repeal – отменять (о законе)

to reshape – приобретать новый вид или иную форму; при­давать новый вид или иную форму

to vest – облекать, наделять (правами, властью); при­надлежать (о правах, вла­сти); возникать у кого-л., переходить к кому-л.

unicameral – однопалатный (о парламенте)

unitary – унитарный

 

LESSON 4

GRAMMAR: COMPLEX SUBJECT, REVISION OF PERFECT FORMS, PASSIVE VOICE

TEXT A: ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

TEXT B: JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATION

Complex Subject (Сложное подлежащее)

 

Сочетание существительного в общем падеже или личного местоимения в именительном падеже в функции подлежащего с инфинитивом при сказуемом, выраженном глаголом в форме страдательного залога, представляет собой сложное подлежащее.

1	2	3
This man	is said	to know five foreign languages.
2	1	3
Говорят,	(что) этот человек	знает пять иностранных языков.

 

В английском языке это простое предложение, но переводить его необходимо сложноподчиненным предложением. Глагол в страдательном залоге переводится на русский язык неопределенно-личным оборотом (говорят, сообщают и т.п.), играющим роль главного предложения, за которым следует придаточное предложение с союзом «что». Существительное или местоимение становится в русском предложении подлежащим придаточного предложения. Инфинитив переводится сказуемым, согласующимся с подлежащим.

Сложное подлежащее обычно встречается с глаголами:

 

to say	- говорить
to report	- сообщать
to consider	- считать
to understand	- понимать
to expect	- ожидать, рассчитывать
to suppose	- полагать и др.

 

В предложении со сложным подлежащим такие глаголы, как:

 

to seem, to appear	- казаться
to prove	- оказываться
to happen	- случаться

 

употребляются в форме действительного залога.

He seems to know English well.

Кажется, он хорошо знает английский.

They happened to be there at that time.

Случилось так, что они были там в это время.

Сказуемое в предложении со сложным подлежащим может быть составным, типа:

to be likely   - вероятно

to be unlikely - маловероятно   

to be certain - несомненно

to be sure      - обязательно.

 

They are unlikely to come in time.

Маловероятно, что они приедут вовремя.

 

Инфинитив в сложном подлежащем может употребляться в различных формах:

1. Инфинитив в форме Indefinite выражает действие, одновременное с действием глагола в личной форме:

This man is said to work much.

Говорят, что этот мужчина много работает.

2. Инфинитив в форме Continuous выражает длительное действие, одновременное с действием глагола в личной форме:

This man is said to be working much.

Говорят, что этот мужчина сейчас много работает.

3. Инфинитив в форме Perfect выражает действие, предшествующее действию глагола в личной форме:

This man is said to have worked much.

Говорят, что этот мужчина много работал.

4. Инфинитив в форме Perfect Continuous выражает длительное действие, совершавшееся в течение отрезка времени, предшествовавшего действию глагола в личной форме:

This man is said to have been working for several days.

Говорят, что этот мужчина много работал в течение нескольких дней.

 

 

Task 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the complex subject:

1. He was said to be one of the most prominent lawyers. 2. He is said to be a good interpreter. 3. Bess was known to be a hard-working student. 4. Our father was expected to arrive on Monday. 5. Our group was supposed to take part in the competition. 6. The number of the unemployed is reported to be increasing with every year. 7. Many new text-books are expected to be published soon. 8. Chernyshevsky is known to have spoken several foreign languages. 9. These devices are considered to be very effective. 10. You are supposed to graduate from the Academy in four years. 11. He appeared to be an ideal man. 12. The student didn’t seem to hear the teacher. 13. In the middle of the lecture Dr. White happened to pause and look out of the window. 14. This work seems to take much time. 15. Jack is sure to be back soon.        16. She is not likely to change her opinion. 17. The article is likely to appear in the next issue of the journal. 18. He is certain to give us some useful information.

 

Task 2. Paraphrase the following sentences paying attention to the complex subject:

E.g. We heard that a car stopped outside the door.

    A car was heard to stop outside the door.

    It is believed that the poem was written by Byron.

    The poem is believed to have been written by Byron.

 

1. We know Bernard Shaw to have been a very witty man. 2. People consider the climate there is very healthful. 3. It is expected that the performance will be a success. 4. It is said that the book is popular with both old and young. 5. It was announced that the Spanish dancers were arriving next week. 6. It is said that the weather in Europe was too hot last summer. 7. It is supposed that the playwright is working at a new comedy. 8. It is reported that the flood has caused much damage to the crops. 9. It is believed that the poem was written by an unknown soldier. 10. Scientists consider that electricity exists throughout space.

TEXT A

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

Text B

ФУНКЦИИ ГЛАГОЛА ТО BE

В зависимости от различной роли в предложении глагол to be мо­жет сохранять, терять или изменять свое первоначальное значение. Для правильного перевода важно быстро и точно определить его син­таксическую функцию в предложении.

1. Глагол to be употребляется в качестве смыслового глагола в своем первоначальном значении "быть", "находиться", если после него стоит обстоятельство (наречие или существительное с предло­гом).

В настоящем времени to be в этом случае на русский язык часто не переводится:

Не is at the Academy now. Он (находится) в академии сейчас.

In the morning she was in the library. Утром она была в библиотеке.

Tom will be here in an hour. Том будет здесь через час.

2. Глагол to be употребляется в сочетании с инфинитивом с час­тицей to для выражения необходимости совершить действие согласно предварительной договоренности или заранее намеченному плану. Глагол to be в этом случае имеет модальное значение.

Глагол to be в настоящем времени - am, is , are - переводится на русский язык «должен, должны» и выражает необходимость совер­шения действия в настоящем или будущем:

 

They are to begin this work at once. Они должны начать эту работу немедленно.

Не is to do it tomorrow. Он должен сделать это завтра.

Was / were в сочетании с инфинитивом в форме Indefinite выражает действие, которое должно было совершиться в прошлом. Это сочетание не указывает, совершилось ли действие или не совершилось, и это становится ясным лишь из всего содержания речи. I was to send him a telegram, but I forgot. Я должен был послать ему телеграмму, но (я) забыл.

Was / were в сочетании с инфинитивом в форме Perfect выражает действие, которое должно было совершиться в прошлом, но не совер­шилось.

I was to have finished my work yesterday.           

Я должен был окончить свою работу вчера (но не окончил).

3. Глагол to be выступает в роли глагола-связки. В этом случае после него может быть употреблено существительное без предлога, инфинитив, прилагательное, числительное.

Не is a law student.

Он студент юридического факультета.

Глагол-связка to be в настоящем времени в соответствии с идио­матикой русского языка при переводе опускается, но в прошедшем и будущем временах переводится соответствующими личными формами глагола «быть».

Shakespeare was the greatest poet of his time. Шекспир был величайшим поэтом своего времени.

She will be a lawyer next year. Она будет юристом в будущем году.

4. а) Глагол to be является вспомогательным глаголом и служит для образования форм длительного времени (Continuous Tense) в со­четании с формой Present Participle смыслового глагола: I am waiting for the results of the test. Я жду результаты теста.

She was writing her yearly project at five o'clock yesterday. Она писала курсовую вчера в пять часов.

б) глагол to be в сочетании с формой Past Participle смыс­лового глагола используется для образования всех времен страда­тельного залога (Passive Voice):

Не is often invited there. Его часто приглашают туда.

Не was asked a difficult question. Ему задали трудный вопрос.      

The translation will be finished tomorrow. Перевод будет закончен завтра.

Вспомогательный глагол to be на русский язык не переводится; вся временная или залоговая форма передается русским эквивалентом смыслового глагола, который в английском предложении занимает последнее место в группе сказуемого.

Task 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the functions of the verb “to be”:

1. The law is not enforced against young children.

2. Government-made laws are often patterned upon informal rules of conduct.

3. The task of the jury is to bring in a verdict.

4. The committee is still discussing the bill.

5. The courts are interpreters of the law.

6. The general nature of the law is that it is enforced equally against all members of the nation.

7. The law on partnership was codified by the Parliament in 1972.

8. Some laws are descriptive, others are prescriptive.

9. Throughout the history British courts were developing Common law.

10.  Customs and court rulings are as important as statutes.

11. The rules of social institutions are observed by those who belong to them.

12.  All the students of the law department are in the conference-hall.

13.  They are having a conference on current problems of law.

14.  The court trial was to start on Monday.

15.  Your case is under the jurisdiction of this court.

TEX T A

TASKS

Task 1 . Read the following words and word combinations and give their Russian equivalents:

criminal law, suspected persons, social sciences, to fix penalties, convicted offenders, moral guilt, consequences of the sentence, existing differences, deterrence of possible offenders, judicial decisions, the nature of the conduct, comprehensive legislative codification, statutory definition, criminal codes, to occur.

 

Task 2 . Read the following words and word combinations and give their English equivalents:

оказывать влияние, искупать вину, уголовно-исполнительный кодекс, указывать (устанавливать) правонарушения, толковать положения, обращение к (ссылка на) общее право, судить человека за правонарушение, отменить закон, убийство, предотвращать преступления, уголовные правонарушения, способы воздействия, цели уголовных санкций, вина обвиняемого, защита общества, жизнь преступника в обществе, способствовать исправлению преступника.

 

THE ELEMENTS OF CRIME

It is generally agreed that the essential ingredients of any crime are (1) a voluntary act or omission (actus reus), accompanied by (2) a certain state of mind (mens rea). An act may be any kind of voluntary human behaviour.

Movements made in an epileptic seizure are not acts, nor are movements made by a somnambulist before awaken­ing, even if they result in the death of another person. Criminal liability for the result also requires that the harm done must have been caused by the accused. The test of causal relationship between conduct and result is that the event would not have happened the same way without direct participation of the offender.

Criminal liability may also be predicated on a failure to act when the accused was under a legal duty to act and was reasonably capable of doing so. The legal duty to act may be imposed directly by statute, such as the requirement to file an income tax return, or it may arise out of the relationship between the parties, as the obligation of parents to provide their child with food.

 

LESSON 6

GRAMMAR: FUNCTIONS OF THE VERB “TO HAVE”

TEXT A: TYPES OF CRIMES

TEXT B: HOW ARE CRIMES CLASSIFIED?

 

FUNCTIONS OF THE VERB “TO HAVE”

Глагол “to have” имеет формы:

               Настоящее время: have , has

               Прошедшее время: had

               Будущее время: shall have, will have

Этот глагол может быть: смысловым глаголом, вспомогательным глаголом для образования перфектной группы времен, модальным глаголом, выражающим долженствование.

1. Смысловой глагол :

                e.g. We have lectures and seminars every day.

                       We had an interesting lecture on Criminal Law yesterday.

                       Tomorrow we shall have three lectures.

2. Вспомогательный глагол :

                e.g. We have passed some credit tests.

                        They had discusses this question when I came.

                        We shall have passed all our exams by August.

3. Модальный глагол :

                      e.g. As I do not know English well I have to work hard to pass it.

                            As I made many mistakes in my test I had to rewrite it.

                            As he is ill he will have to take exams with another group.

Task I. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to the functions of the verb “to have”:

1. I had to do a lot of homework yesterday. 2. Mike had to write this exercise at the Institute, because he had not done it at home. 3. I have not translated the text. I shall have to translate it on Sunday. 4. She has a lot of work at home, she will be busy tomorrow. 5. Will you have to get up early tomorrow? 6. She had to stay at home because she didn’t feel well. 7. When my parents have free time they go to the park. 8.We had no meeting last week, we shall have to hold it next week. 9. Have you any relatives at home?

 

Task 2. Make the following sentences negative and interrogative:

1. You have to pass examinations twice a year. 2. He had to read this book by Friday. 3. She will have to telephone her tutor and ask for advice. 4. She had to work hard to pass her examinations successfully. 5. You have to stay in bed until your cold is over. 6. They had to build the new building of the hostel by last summer.

TEXT A

Before reading the text 1) learn to pronounce the following words correctly:

[o:] authorize former disorderly assault	[o] property wrong robbery constitute homicide	[i] distinguish division	[i:] misdemeanor unique
[æ] categorize characterize category manslaughter battery	[e] offense death threat possessor	[ai] type fine	[ ] another structure punishable
[a:] larceny arson	[ә:] burning burglary murder	[ju:] human

2) read and translate the following groups of words, define their part of speech:

to offend, offender, offence; distinct, distinctive, distinction; felon, felony, felonious; to consider, consideration; law, lawyer, lawful, lawfulness, unlawful, unlawfulness; character, to characterize, characteristic; just, to justify, justification, justifiable.

TYPES OF CRIMES

The offences may be divided into two categories: crimes against the person and crimes against property. We also should distinguish between offences known as felonies and misdemeanors. Felonies are usually offences punishable by sentences of more than one year in state or federal prisons. Misdemeanors are offences punishable by sentences up to one year, usually in a county or local jail. Offences of either types may also be punishable by fines.

In addition to the distinction between felonies and misdemeanors, we may categorize crimes as malum in se – acts which are wrong in and of themselves, or malum prohibitum – acts which are wrong because they are prohibited. Examples of the former include most crimes against the person (murder, rape, battery) and some property crimes (burglary for example). Examples of the latter include the use of marijuana, tax evasion and disorderly conduct.

Crimes against person are: homicide (murder, manslaughter) assault and battery, forcible rape, other sex offences, and robbery. Crimes against property are: theft or larceny, burglary and arson.

 Homicide is generally considered to be the most serious felony. The term refers to the killing of a human being and it is often thought to be synonymous with murder, but murder is only one category of homicide. Murder occurs when one human being is killed by another without lawful justification and with malice aforethought. Manslaughter is unlawful homicide committed without malice aforethought.

 All crimes against person do not result in the victim’s death. The unlawful application of force by one individual against another may constitute a battery, and the attempt or threat to commit a battery may constitute an assault.

 Robbery is unique in that it may be characterized as both a crime against the person and a crime against property. Robbery involves taking property (theft) from another person by force or threat of force.

 Crimes against property are: theft, burglary and arson. Theft occurs when one obtains unauthorized control over the property of another with the intent to deprive the possessor of the property. Burglary involves breaking into and entering the dwelling of another with the intent to commit a felony. Arson poses a serious threat to both human life and property. Arson involves the willful an unlawful burning of a building or structure.

 

TASKS

Task 1. Read and translate the following word combinations:

crimes against property, different types of offences, the distinction between felonies and misdemeanors, acts prohibited by law, property crimes, tax evasion, disorderly conduct, the killing of a human being, without lawful justification, malice aforethought, unlawful application of force, the attempt or threat to commit a battery, unauthorized control over the property, the intent to commit a felony, the willful burning of a building, to punish by fines.

 

Task 2. Match the following:

malice	by fines
to punish	evasion
to commit	aforethought
acts	application of force
threat	prohibited by the law
unlawful	lawful justification
without	to commit a felony
tax	a felony

Task 3. Match the terms with their definitions:

Manslaughter	the intention to seriously harm someone or commit serious crime.
Malice aforethought	an act that creates in one person the reasonable fear of being battered by another, by reason of threat or attempt to                                       batter.
Battery	an unlawful homicide committed without malice aforethought.
Robbery	an intentional unprovoked harmful physical intent by one person with another.
Assault	the illegal taking of property from another by force.

 

Task 4. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to the functions of the verb “to have”:

1. The lower chamber has passed the bill and it went to the upper chamber.  2. We shall have a lecture on Criminology next Monday. 3. During the cold war Europe had to choose between another war or peaceful coexistence. 4. Informal rules have very little to do with the laws created by governments. 5. English law has developed through decisions in individual cases. 6. The system bases on English Common law has been adopted by many Commonwealth countries and most of the US. 7. Versions of Roman law had long influenced many parts of Europe but had little impact on English law. 8. Many customs have existed since “time immemorial”. 9. In Greece each city had its own law. 10. French public law has never been codified.

 

Task 5. Read and translate the sentences:

1. The term organized crime describes social framework for the perpetration of criminal act usually in such fields as gambling, narcotics and prostitution, where a service the public desires is illegal.

2. Upperworld crimes are violations committed in the business world (for example, tax evasion or price fixing).

3. Visible crimes – offenses against persons and property, usually committed by lower class person, often referred to as “street crimes or ordinary crimes”, these are the offenses most upsetting to the public.

4. Political crimes include such crimes as treason, rebellion and espionage that are viewed as threats to the government.

5. Crimes without victims – offenses in which there is a willing and private exchange of goods and services for which there is a strong demand but which are illegal.

6. Statutes are laws passed by legislatures. 

 

TEXT B

HOW ARE CRIMES CLASSIFIED?

Crimes may be classified in various ways. One type of classification is given below. As you read the following list, however, keep in mind that human beings are the ultimate victims in all crimes:

Ø crimes against a person (murder, assault and battery,
kidnapping, rape),

Ø crimes against property (larceny, robbery, hijacking loaded trucks, embezzlement, receiving stolen property),

Ø crimes against the government and the administration of justice (treason, tax evasion, bribery, counterfeiting, perjury),

Ø crimes against public peace and order (rioting, carrying weapons, drunk and disorderly conduct, illegal speeding),

Ø crimes against buildings (burglary, arson, criminal trespass),

Ø crimes against consumers (fraudulent sale of wild cat securities), or

Ø crimes against decency (bigamy, obscenity, prostitution, sexual harassment).

Crimes are classified in terms of their seriousness as felonies or misdemeanors.

Felonies

A felony is a crime of a serious nature. It exists when the act:

1)  is labeled so by law or

2)  is punishable by death or confinement for more than one year in prison.

Murder, kidnapping, arson, rape, robbery, burglary, embezzlement, forgery, larceny (also called theft) of large sums, and perjury are examples of felonies. A person who lies when under oath commits perjury.

Misdemeanors

A misdemeanor is a crime of a less serious nature. It is usually punishable 1) by confinement in a jail for less than one year, 2) by fine, or 3) by both confinement and fine. Crimes such as drunkenness in public, driving an automobile at an illegal speed, shoplifting, and larceny of small sums are usually misdemeanors. A lesser misdemeanor is known as an infraction. Parking overtime on metered parking, failing to clear snow from sidewalks, and littering are examples of infractions. Ordinarily, no jury is allowed in cases involving infractions because the punishment is no more than a fine.

Larceny

Larceny (commonly known as theft) is the wrongful taking of money or personal property belonging to someone else. Variations of larceny include robbery (taking personal property in immediate presence and against the victim's will, and by force or by causing fear) and burglary (entering a building with the intent to commit a crime). Other types of larceny include shoplifting, pickpocketing, and purse snatching.

Larceny may be either a felony or a misdemeanor. The classification is determined by the value of the property stolen and the circumstances surrounding the act. However, burglary is always a felony. In addition, if the burglar sells the stolen goods, he is guilty of two crimes - burglary and selling stolen property.

Receiving Stolen Property

Knowingly receiving stolen property is an offense separate from larceny. It consists of receiving, concealing, or buying property known to be stolen, with intent to deprive the rightful owner of the property. One who receives stolen property is known as a fence (скупщик краденого). Special statutes deal with the fencing of types of property that are commonly stolen, such as motor vehicles and valuable airplane, ship, or truck cargoes.

False Pretenses

One who obtains money or other property from another person by lying about a past or existing fact is guilty of false pretenses (also known as false representation). This crime differs from larceny because the victim parts with the property voluntarily. False pretenses is a type of fraud.

Forgery

Forgery is falsely making or altering any writing (for example the signature of another person). In forgery there must be intent to defraud either the person whose name is signed or someone else. The most common forgeries are found on checks when one has signed another's name without permission to do so. Forgery also includes altering a check, such as when one changes «$7» to «$70» and «Seven» to «Seventy». Forgery is usually a felony.

Bribery

Bribery is offering or giving to a government official money or anything of value which the official was not authorized to receive in order to influence performance of an official duty. Accepting the money or offer is also bribery.

Extortion

Extortion (commonly known as blackmail) is obtaining money or other property from a person by wrongful use of force, fear, or the power of office. The extortionist (blackmailer) may threaten to inflict bodily injury on the victim or a close relative of the victim. Sometimes the extortionist threatens to expose a secret crime if payment is not made. Kidnapping is a related crime.

Conspiracy

Conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to do an unlawful criminal act, or to do a lawful act by unlawful means. Usually the agreement is secret. Depending on the circumstances, the crime may be either a felony or a misdemeanor. Business executives of competing corporations sometimes conspire to fix prices or to divide markets.

Arson

Arson is the willful and illegal burning of a building. Under early common law, the courts sought primarily to protect human life. Therefore, arson was limited to the malicious burning of another’s home. This definition has since been extended to include other structures. Arson has been committed when someone intentionally starts a fire or causes an explosion that results in any burning.

Computer Crime

Society has only recently addressed the problems of crimes made possible by the computer revolution.

One problem involves the stealing of valuable information from other persons’ computers. Recall that larceny is “the wrongful taking of the personal property of others.” This traditional definition of the crime made it difficult to prosecute those who steal computer data for two reasons. First, many courts concluded that there was not a «taking» if an intruder merely copied the information in the computer. Second, even if an intruder copied and erased computer information, some courts concluded that there was no taking of “personal property” but only the loss of electrical impulses, which no one really owns.

Answer the questions:

1. What are crimes against a person?

2. What are crimes against property?

3. What are crimes against the government and the administration of justice?

4. What are crimes against public peace and order?

5. What are crimes against consumers?

6. What are crimes against decency?

7.What is a felony? Give examples of felonies.

8. What is the punishment for felonies?

9. What is a misdemeanor? Give examples of misdemeanors.

10.What is the punishment for misdemeanors?

11.What is an infraction? Give examples of infractions.

12. What is the punishment for infractions?

13. Give examples of business related crimes.

Match the name of a criminal with the suitable definition of the offence:

a.       a member of a criminal group	1. a burglar
b.       a soldier who runs away from the army	2. a drug dealer
c.       anyone who breaks the law	3. a forger
d.       attacks and robs people in the street	4. a gangster
e.       breaks into houses or other buildings to steal	5. a hijacker
f.       buys and sells drugs illegally	6. a hooligan
g. causes damage or disturbance in public places	7. a kidnapper
h. deliberately causes damage to property	8. a mugger
i. gets secret information from another country	9. a pickpocket
j. helps a criminal in a criminal act	10. a murderer
k. kills someone	11. a robber
1. makes counterfeit (false) money or signatures	12. a shop-lifter
m. marries illegally, being married already	13. a smugler      14. a spy
n. murders for political reasons or a reward	14.a terrorist
о. illegally sets fire to someone's house or property	15. a thief
p. someone who steals	16. a traitor
q. steals from shops while acting as an ordinary custom­er	17. a vandal
r. steals money or things by force from people or places	18.an accomplice
s. steals things from people's pockets	19.an arsonist
t. takes away, people by force and demands money for their return	20.an assassin
u. takes control of a plane by force and makes the pilot change course	22. an offender
v. uses violence for political reasons	21.a burglar

 

22.a burglar

23.a drug dealer

24.a forger

25.a gangster

26.a hijacker

27.a hooligan

28.a kidnapper

29.a mugger

30.a pickpocket

31. a murderer

32. a robber

33. a shop-lifter

34. a smugler
     14. a spy

35.a terrorist

36. a thief

37. a traitor

38. a vandal

39.an accomplice

40.an arsonist

41.an assassin

22. an offender

Match the following:

1. arson

2. bribery

3. burglary

4. conspiracy

5. crime

6. assault

7. battery

8. extortion

9. false pretenses

10. felony

11. forgery

12. immunity

13. juvenile delinquency

14. larceny

15. misdemeanor

16. pardon

17. parole

18. perjury

19. probation

20. punishment

21. receiving stolen property

22. robbery

23. victimless crimes

24. white-collar crimes

a. a punishable offense against society

b. intentional, illegal burning of a building

c. nonviolent crimes committed by generally respected persons.

d. crimes for which there may be no real victim

e. penalty imposed for committing a crime

f. punishment allowing liberty under court-ordered supervision

g. release from all punishment

h. crime of a less serious nature punishable by fine and/ or jail up to one year

i. taking of property by force from the person or presence of another

j. buying known stolen property with the intent to deprive the rightful owner

k. a threat which causes a well-founded fear of immediate bodily harm

1. freedom from prosecution m. wrongful taking of another’s personal property with intent to deprive the owner of possession.

n. early release of a prisoner with suspension of the remainder of the prisoner’s sentence

o. lying under oath

p. illegally entering a building with the intent to commit a crime

q. violation by minors of criminal and other laws

r. intentional causing of bodily harm

s. making or materially altering any writing, with intent to defraud

t. serious crime punishable by death or imprisonment for more than one year

u. obtaining property by lying

v. obtaining property wrongfully by force or fear

w. agreement to commit a crime

x. offering, giving, or receiving money to influence official action

LESSON 7

GRAMMAR: REVISION OF ING-FORMS, PASSIVE VOICE

TEXT A: CIVIL LAW

TEXT B: CIVIL PROCEEDINGS

TEXT C: CIVIL COURTS

 

TEXT A

Before reading the text learn to pronounce the following words correctly:

[o:] law call	[o] involve prosecutor responsible preponderance	[i] division issue injure	[i:] breech complete feature means
[æ] category matter damage unanimous	[e] penalty settlement defendant evidence	[ai] design provide private	[ei] behaviour failure plaintiff
[ ] government public among company	[a:] harmful arson	[ju:] sue suit dispute	[ә:] deter concern burden

 

CIVIL LAW

There are many divisions and categories of law. One major division is between civil and criminal law. Civil law is designed to regulate matters of a private nature involving issues such as contracts and domestic relations.

A major purpose of criminal law is to protect the public and prevent or deter criminal behavior. The government brings suit and imposes penalties on those found guilty. In civil law cases, individuals rather than government bring suit in which redress is sought for some harmful action. Breach of contract could be grounds for a civil suit. A contractor being suit for failure to complete a building for example, is a civil action. A person committing arson is liable under the criminal law and could also be liable for civil law damages as well.

These are major features of civil law:

a. It provides a means for settling private disputes.

b. The individual citizen (rather than government brings suit, this is called a civil suit.

c. It is concerned with payment for damages.

d. The government provides a forum for settlement of disputes but is not a prosecutor.

                                                  *********

Civil cases. Civil cases are usually disputes between or among private citizens, corporations, governments, government agencies and other organizations. Most often, the party bringing the suit is asking for money damages for some wrong that has been done, Foe example, a tenant may sue a landlord for failure to fix a leaky roof, or a landlord may sue a tenant for failure to pay rent. People who have been injured may sue a person or a company they feel is responsible for the injury.

The party bringing the suit is called the plaintiff; the party being sued is called the defendant. There may be many plaintiffs and many defendants in the same case.

The plaintiff starts the lawsuit by filling a paper called a COMPLAINT, in which the case against the defendant is stated. The next paper filed is usually the ANSWER, in which the defendant disputes what the plaintiff has said in the complaint. The defendant may also feel that there has been a wrong committed by the plaintiff, in which case a COUNTERCLAIM will be filed along with the answer. It is up to the plaintiff to prove the case against the defendant. In each civil case the judge tells the jury the extent to which the plaintiff must prove the case. This is called the plaintiff’s BURDEN OF PROOF, a burden that the plaintiff must meet in order to win. In most civil cases the plaintiff’s burden is to prove the case by a PREPONDERANCE OF EVIDENCE, that is that the plaintiff’s version of what happened in the case is more probably true than not true.

Jury verdicts do not need to be unanimous in civil cases. Only ten jurors need to agree upon a verdict if there are 12 jurors: five must agree if there are six jurors.

TASKS

Task 1. Read and translate the following word combinations:

divisions and categories of law, domestic relations, to deter criminal behavior, to find guilty, grounds for the civil suit, harmful actions, private disputes, to be liable under criminal law and civil law, to commit an arson payment for damages, to bring a suit, to impose penalties, a paper called a complaint, a paper called an answer, burden of proof, to prove the case by a preponderance of evidence, the plaintiff’s version, landlord and tenant.

 

Task 2 Match the following:

1. Action	1. Person charged with a crime
2. Defendant	2. Claim presented by a defendant in opposition to the claim of the plaintiff.
3. Preponderance of evidence	3. Proceeding taken in court synonymous to case, suit, lawsuit.
4. Counterclaim	4. Means that the weight of evidence presented by one side is more convincing to the tier of facts than the evidence presented by the opposing side.
5. Plaintiff	5. Formal written charge that a person has committed a criminal offense.
6. Complaint	6. The party who begins an action, complains or sues.

 

Task 3. Read Text B, translate it and give a resume using the expressions given below:

                                                Civil Proceedings

In England and Wales civil proceedings are instituted by the aggrieved person; no preliminary inquiry on the authenticity of the grievance is required. Actions in the High Court are usually begun by a writ of summons served on the defendant by the plaintiff, starting the nature of the claim. A defendant intending to contest the claim informs the court. Documents setting out the precise question in dispute (the proceedings) are then delivered to the court. County court proceedings are initiated by a summons served on the defendant by the court, subsequent procedure is simpler than in the High Court.

A decree of divorce must be pronounced in open court, but a procedure for most undefended cases disposes with the need to give evidence in court and permits written evidence to be considered by the registrar.

Civil proceedings, as a private-matter, can be abandoned or ended by compromise at any time. Actions brought to court are usually tried without jury, except in defamation, false imprisonment or malicious prosecution cases, when either party may, except in certain special circumstances, insist on trial by jury, or a fraud case, when the defendant may claim this right. The jury decides questions of fact and damages awarded to the injured party; majority verdicts may be accepted.

 

The title of the text is …

The text consists of … parts.

The first (the second … ) part is about, deals with …

The main idea of the text is …

The text gives information about ….

At the beginning of the text the author describes …..

At the end of the text we read about …

TEXT C

CIVIL COURTS

England and Wales

The limited civil jurisdiction of magistrates’ courts extends to matrimonial proceedings for custody and maintenance orders. The courts also have jurisdiction regarding nuisances under the public health legislation and the recovery of rates. Committees of magistrates license public houses, betting shops and clubs.

The jurisdiction of the 274 county courts covers actions founded upon contract and tort ((with minor exceptions); trust and mortgage cases; and actions for the recovery of land. Cases involving claims exceeding set limits may be tried in the county court by consent of the parties or in certain circumstances on transfer from the High Court.

Other matters dealt with by the county courts, include hire purchase, the Rent Acts, landlord and tenant, and adoption cases. Divorce cases are determined in those courts designated as divorce county courts. The courts also deal with complaints of race and sex discrimination. Where small claims are concerned (especially those involving consumers), there are special arbitration facilities and simplified procedures.

All judges of the Supreme Court (comprising the Court of Appeal, the Crown Court and the High Court) and all circuit judges and recorders have power to sit in the county courts, but each court has one or more circuit judges assigned to it by the Lord Chancellor, and the regular sittings of the court are mostly taken by them. The judge normally sits alone, although on request the court may, exceptionally, order a trial with jury.

The High Court of Justice is divided into the Chancery Division, the Queen’s Bench Division and the Family Division. Its jurisdiction is both original and appellate and covers civil and some  

Criminal cases. In general, particular types of work are assigned to a particular division. The Family Division, for instance, is concerned with all jurisdictions affecting the family, including that relating to adoption and guardianship. The Chancery division deals with the interpretation of the wills and the administration of estates. Maritime and commercial law is the responsibility of admiralty and commercial courts of the Queen’s Bench Division. A consultative power examining the issues involved in setting up a unified jurisdiction in family and domestic matters – a single “family court” – was published in mid-1986.

Each of the 80 or who judges of the High Court is attached to one division on appointment but may be transferred to any other division while in office. Outside London (where the High Court sits at the Royal Courts of Justice) sittings are held at 26 county court centers. For the hearing of cases at first instance, High Court judges sit alone. Appeals in civil matters from lower courts are heard by courts of two (or sometimes three) judges, or by single judges of the appropriate division, nominated by the Lord Chancellor.

TASKS

Task 1. Check the comprehension of the texts “The Civil Law” and “Civil Courts” by choosing the answer, which, you think, is correct:

1. Family law, the law of property, the law of contract and the law of torts are the main sub-divisions of the civil law of England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

a) it is mainly true, except for the law of contract;

b) family law is not one of the main sub-divisions of the Civil Law in Northern Ireland;

c) yes, it is absolutely true.

 2.There are other branches of the civil law, which include constitutional and administrative , industrial, maritime and ecclesiastical law.

a) constitutional and administrative matters are not supposed to be considered by the civil law in England;

b) yes, it is true, the above mentioned branches of law are under the jurisdiction of the civil law;

c) ecclesiastical law is not under the jurisdiction of the civil law.

3. The jurisdiction of the county courts covers actions founded upon contract and tort; trust and marriage cases.

a) mortgage cases are under the jurisdiction of criminal courts;

b).actions founded upon contract may be regarded by both civil courts and criminal courts;

d) this statement is correct, in addition the recovery of land is under the jurisdiction of the county courts.

4. All judges of the Supreme Court and all circuit judges have power to sit in the county courts.

a) it is not quite so, not all circuit judges have power to sit in the county courts;

b) the judges of the Court of Appeal have no power to sit in the county courts either;

c) yes, it is absolutely true, and in addition recorders have also power to sit in the county courts, but each court has one or more circuit judges, assigned to it by the Lord Chancellor, and the regular sittings of the court are mostly taken by them..

5. The High Court of Justice is divided into divisions.

a) yes, it is true and it includes the Chancery Division, the Queen’s Bench Division and the Family division.

b) The High Court of Justice does not have any divisions;

c) The High Court of Justice is divided into the Chancery Division and the Family Division and what is more interesting the High Court of Justice cannot be original.

 6. Appeals in civil matters from lower courts are heard by courts of two (or sometimes three) judges.

a) yes, it is true and it may be added, that there may be single judges of the appropriate division, nominated by the Lord Chancellor;

b) appeals in these cases are heard by courts of five judges;

c)  appeals from lower courts are heard by courts of only single judges.

 

Task 2. Pick out from the texts “The Civil Law” and “Civil Courts. England and Wales” all the word combinations with the following words (terms) and give their Russian equivalents:

family                        contract

law                            recovery

branch                       division

judge                         to sit (v), sittings (n)

court                          adoption

 

Task 3. Explain the meanings of the following words and expressions:

- branches of the civil law;

- a trial;

- the limited civil jurisdiction of magistrates’ courts;

- trust;

- consent of the parties;

- hire purchase;

- arbitration facilities;

- original jurisdiction

- a unified jurisdiction

- a court center.               

MARRIAGE LAW

In some societies the family is thought to be so important that there is very little legal intervention in family life. But in many parts of the world, the law now promotes the rights of individuals within the family unit, and regulates family relations through legislation.

In Sweden, parents can be prosecuted for physical punishing their chil­dren and children have a limited capacity to divorce their parents. In Brit­ain, as in many countries, there are special family courts with very strong powers to control and transfer private property in the interests of children. Much of the work of other courts is also directly relevant to family life.

The laws in most countries place more emphasis upon marriages le­gally rincstered than social arrangements whereby people live together. In Japan, some couples prefer not to register their marriage because the law requires one of them to give up his or her name in favor of the other. The birth and residence documentation of children born to such marriages is different from that of other children and sometimes leads to discrimina­tion. In Britain, children born outside legitimate marriages have fewer rights to financial support from estranged fathers than legitimate children. In addition, if they are born outside the UK, they are less likely than legitimate children to be granted British citizenship. Their fathers have no automatic right to have contact with them. Some welfare payments are calculated on a different basis according to whether recipients are married or not, and more procedures are available to a married woman than an unmarried one in seeking protection from domestic violence.

In English law, some marriages may be readily dissolved, or nullified — for example: if the couple never consummated the marriage are blood re­lations, or they are under the legal age of sixteen, are both women, or, de­spite a surgical sex change, and both men. In other cases, a couple may seek a divorce. The procedure may be lengthy, especially if one does not want to get divorced or if there are children. In no case will English law allow divorce proceedings to start within a year of the marriage, since it is thought this is too soon for the marriage to have tested itself. It is also feared that people would get married without serious thought if it were quick and easy to get a divorce.

Divorce is the dissolution of a marriage, otherwise than by death, nor­mally permitting each party to remarry.

Divorce proceedings in England take place in certain County Courts known as divorce county courts. Some matters are also dealt with in the Family Division of the High Court. It is necessary for one of the parties to convince the court that the marriage has broken down without any chance of reconciliation. To do this the person seeking for divorce must prove one of five things: that the other party, or respondent, committed adultery (had sex with someone else); that the respondent’s behavior has been unreason­able; that the respondent deserted the petitioner at least two years previ­ously; that the couple has lived apart for two years and both agree to di­vorce; or that they have lived apart for five years. A divorce will not be issued until satisfactory arrangements have been made for any children of the marriage, including determining who is to have custody of the children.

In the case of property, the courts have to find a balance between two rinceples. One of that any division should fairly reflect how much each party contributed to the property they held together. In the past, some wom­en suffered when they separated from their husband because the house they lived in was bought with his money and registered in his name. Nowadays, courts look beyond legal ownership and cash contributions. Work done in the home, time spent caring for the family, even emotional support, are all considered as giving some rights to property.

TASKS

Task 1. Read the following words and translate them into Russian. Define their part of speech:

important, society, legal, intervention, to promote, physical, limited, capacity, private, property, emphasis, registered, arrangement, deterrent, legitimate, financial, estranged, citizenship, payment, available, domestic, readily, lengthy, especially, division, satisfactory, to separate, ownership.

 

Task 2. Write the infinitive of the following verb forms:

prosecuted, limited, transferred, registered, requires, born, married, nullified, dissolved, feared, including, bought, caring, issued.

 

Task 3. Find the words with the similar meaning among the following:

legal, individual, to prosecute, physical, capacity, property, private, emphasis, corporal, to require, to sue, ability, ownership, attention, legitimate, to demand, to give up, protection, petitioner, to define, defense, plaintiff, to determine, to reject, custody, to divide, trusteeship, to separate.

 

Task 4. Find the words with the opposite meaning among the following:

marriage, public, important, easy, separate, respondent, private, difficult, divorce, insignificant, petitioner, present, children, united, previous, adults.

Task 5. Replace the words in italics by their synonyms from the text:

1) The law must control family relations through legislation.

2) This businessman is rich enough to support a football team.

3) Please don’t list my name.

4) Your must stop smoking if you want to feel better.

5) I can’t believe you have decided to dissolve your marriage. Your family seemed to be an ideal one.

6) Remember, you must use public money only for lawful purposes.

7) He used to donate to the Red Cross.

Task 6. Suggest the Russian equivalents for the following

• to regulate family relations through legislation;

• to start divorce proceedings;

• to refuse to get divorced;

• to transfer private property;

• to register one’s marriage;

• to give up something in favor of the other;

• to get no financial support;

• to be granted British citizenship;

• to calculate welfare payments;

• to dissolve one’s marriage;

• to find respondent’s behavior unreasonable;

 

• to commit adultery;

• to satisfy the claims of the petitioner;

• to have custody of the children;

• to contribute much to the property;

• English legislation;

• legal intervention in family life;

• to look beyond legal ownership and contribution

TASKS

LESSON 9

GRAMMAR: REVISION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE INFINITIVE    

TEXT A: HOW IS THE LAW ENFORCED?

TEXT B: WHAT IS A COURT?

TEXT C: CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CASES

TEXT D: WHAT IS THE PROCEDURE IN A CRIMINAL ACTION?

TEXT E: WHAT IS THE PROCEDURE IN A CIVIL ACTION?

 

TEXT A

Before reading the text learn to pronounce the following words correctly:

[o:] enforce cause ignore	[o] involve convict conduct prosecutor	[i] imprison particular injury	[i:] procedural appeal legal
[e] revenue offender general	[  ] custom conduct	[ai] define private primarily	[ju:] duty use dispute
[ә:] person concern

 

HOW IS THE LAW ENFORCED?

Governments create laws. They are also very involved in enforcing the law. In the US, They have three levels of government - federal, state, and local. All three levels create laws and all three levels enforce laws. Each level of government usually uses police, public prosecutors, and courts to enforce the law.

Table

Examples of common names used for police, public prosecutors, and courts of the three levels of government in the US.

Level of Government	Police	Prosecutors (прокуроры )	Courts
Federal Level	FBI- Agent (агент ФБР) Customs Inspector (таможенник) Internal Revenue Agent (агент налоговой службы)	U.S. Attorney General (министр юстиции США)	U.S. Supreme Court (Верховный суд США) Court of Appeals (апелляционный суд) District Court (окружной суд) Tax Court (налоговый суд) Bankruptcy Court (отдел по делам о банкротстве)
State Level	Highway Patrol (дорожный патруль) State Trooper (патрульный)	Attorney General (министр юстиции штата) State	Supreme Court (Верховный суд) Court of Appeals (апелляционный суд) Superior Court (главный суд первой инстанции)
Local Level (City and County)	Police Officer or Detective Sheriff	District Attorney (прокурор округа) City Attorney (прокурор города) Public Prosecutor (прокурор	City Court (муниципальный суд) Traffic Court (дорожный суд) Divorce Court (суд по разводам) Juvenile Court (суд по делам несовершеннолетних) Justice Court (суд справедливости)

In general, each level of government is most concerned with its own laws. Thus, agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) investigate only violations of federal laws.

Procedural law deals with methods of enforcing legal rights and duties. Laws, which specify how and when police can make arrests and what procedures can be used in a trial are procedural laws. In contrast, substantive law defines rights and duties; it is concerned with all rules of conduct except those involved in enforcement.

There are two types of procedural law - civil procedure and criminal procedure. Criminal procedure defines the process for enforcing the law when someone is charged with a crime. A crime is an offense against society, as well as a violation of the rights of the victim. Because a crime is an offense against society, representatives of society such as city police, the state highway patrol, or FBI agents investigate the alleged criminal conduct and try to arrest and imprison those who commit criminal acts. Other representatives of society - city prosecutors, state attorneys general, or U.S. attorneys try to convict the alleged offender during a criminal trial. The law of criminal procedure controls each of these activities.

Civil procedure is used when a civil law has been violated. Civil law is concerned only with private offenses. These are offenses against a particular person who has been injured. When a civil law is violated, the injured party uses civil procedure to protect his or her rights, primarily through a civil trial. Since civil matters involve a private offense, police and public prosecutors generally do not involve themselves in the dispute.

One act may be both a crime and a civil offense. That is, one act may violate the criminal laws and at the same time violate the civil laws by causing a private injury.

 

TASKS

Task 1. According to the suffix, define nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs:

government, usually, prosecutor, investigation, codify, traditionally, procedural, possibly, judicial, simplify, generally, procedural, representative, procedure, violation, specify.

 

Task 2. Read and translate the following word combinations:

to enforce the law, to investigate violations, procedural law, to enforce legal rights and duties, substantive law, to charge with a crime, criminal conduct, to convict an offender, criminal trial, criminal procedure, an injured party, to protect the rights, civil procedure.

Task 3. Read and translate into Russian:

criminal procedure, criminal conduct, criminal laws, a city prosecutor, public prosecutor, state attorney general, investigator, policeman, prosecutor, judge, juror.

 

Task 4. Match the following:

1. procedural                        1. prosecutor

2. to convict                         2. of conduct

3. rules                                 3. law

4. public                               4. crimes

5. violation                           5. procedure  

6. to investigate                    6. an offender

7. civil                                  7. of federal laws

 

Task 5. Fill in the blanks using the words given in brackets:

1. … law deals with methods of enforcing the law.

2. There are two types of procedural law – civil procedure and … criminal procedure.

3. A crime is an offence against … .

4. Federal, state and local level of government of the USA usually uses police, public prosecutors and courts … laws.

5. Civil law is concerned only with … offences.

6. … law defines rights and duties and is concerned with all rules of conduct except those involved in enforcement.

7. Criminal procedure defines the process for enforcing the law when someone … with a crime.

    (private, is charged, substantive, procedural, to enforce, criminal, society)  

 

Task 6. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the functions of the Infinitive:

1. A simple majority of the jury is enough to reach a verdict.

2. The law presumes the accused not to be guilty until his guilt has been proven.

3. To use custody is a sanction of last resort.

4. The defendant prefers to be discharged at once.

5. The person is unfit to be tried.

6. To inform the defense of witnesses, whose evidence may help the accused and whom the prosecution does not propose to call is a job of the prosecution.

7. To have made the same mistake twice was unforgivable.

8. He discovered how to open the safe.

9. The solicitor encouraged me to try to appeal again.

10.  He was the only one to be imposed a sentence of imprisonment.

11.  The defendant appears to have waiting a long time.

12.  The person is too young to arrest him.

        

Task 7. Answer the questions:

1. What does procedural law deal with?

2. What is substantive law concerned with?

3. What are the two types of procedural law?

4. What does criminal procedure define?

5. When is civil procedure used?

6. What is civil law concerned with?

TEXT B

WHAT IS A COURT?

A court is a tribunal established to administer justice under the law. It may decide civil disputes or criminal cases. A court may award damages or administer punishment for crimes.

Courts vary in authority (or jurisdiction) from justice of the peace and small claims courts to the supreme courts of various states and the Supreme Court of the United States. State courts have power to decide cases involving state and local laws. Federal courts have power to decide cases involving federal law.

There are two different levels of courts: trial courts and appellate courts. A trial court is the first court to hear a dispute. Witnesses testify and presented information to prove the alleged facts. A trial court consists not only of a judge but also of lawyers, who are officers of the court, and others who are necessary for the court’s operation. The words court and judge are often used to mean the same thing. While presiding over a legal action, the judge may be referred to as “The Court” or “Your Honor.”

An appellate court sometimes reviews decisions of a trial court when a party claims an error of law was made at the trial level. In most cases, the decision may be appealed to the next higher court, including the state supreme court. The decision of the supreme court of a state may be reviewed by the Supreme Court of the United States.

Unlike trial courts, appellate courts do not hear witnesses or accept new evidence. They examine the transcript - the word-for-word written record of what was said at the trial. They also read appellate briefs (written arguments on the issues submitted by the opposing attorneys). Then the appellate courts listen to oral arguments of the attorneys and may question them about the case. Finally, the appellate courts decide whether, as a matter of law, the decision below should be affirmed (upheld), reversed (overturned опровергать), amended (changed), or remanded (sent back to the trial court for corrective action, including possibly a new trial).

Answer the questions:

1. What is a court?

2. What powers have State courts?

3. What powers have Federal courts?

4. What are the two different levels of courts?

5. What does a trial court consist of?

6. What is the role of witnesses at the trial?

7. What is the role of lawyers at the trial?

8. What is an appellate court?

9. Do appellate courts hear witnesses or accept new evidence?

10. What is a transcript and appellate briefs?

11. What is a procedure in appellate courts?

12. What are possible decisions of appellate courts?

TEXT C

Before reading the text learn to pronounce the following words correctly. Consult the dictionary if necessary:

[o:] law force divorce order	[o] prosecute cost	[i] criminal civil  forbid activity distinction  admissible victim injure	[i:] procedure legal  deal
[æ] value accident magistrate matter damage contractual	[e] defendant evidence necessary benefit	[ei] violation claim rape obligation  compensation  plaintiff	[a:] command arson argument
[ ] government public punishment	[ә:] murder versus	[ju:] prosecution pursue dispute

 

CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CASES

Courts decide both criminal and civil cases. Civil cases stem from dis­puted claims to something of value. Disputes arise from accidents, contrac­tual obligations, and divorce, for example.

Most countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and crimi­nal procedures. For example, an English criminal court may force a defen dant to pay a. fine as punishment for his crime, and he may sometimes have to pay the legal costs of the prosecution. But the victim of the crime pur­sues his claim for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action.

Criminal and civil procedures are different. Although some systems, in­cluding the English, allow a private citizen to bring a criminal prosecution against another citizen, criminal actions are nearly always started by the state. Civil actions, on the other hand, are usually started by individuals.

Some courts, such as the English Magistrates Courts and the Japanese Family Court, deal with both civil and criminal matters. Others, such as the English Crown Court, deal exclusively with one or the other.

In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in most cases the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the defendant. A criminal case against a person called Ms. Brown would be described as "The People vs. (versus, or against) Brown" in the United States and "R. (Regina, that is, the Queen) vs. Brown" in England. But a civil action between Ms. Brown and Mr. Smith would be "Brown vs. Smith" if it was started by Brown, and "Smith vs. Brown" if it was started by Mr. Smith.

Evidence from a criminal trial is not necessarily admissible as evidence in a civil action about the same matter. For example, the victim of a road accident does not directly benefit if the driver who injured him is found guilty of the crime of careless driving. He still has to prove his case in a civil action. In fact he may be able to prove his civil case even when the driver is found not guilty in the criminal trial.

Once the plaintiff has shown that the defendant is liable, the main argument in a civil court is about the amount of money, or damages, which the defendant should pay to the plaintiff.

TASKS

Task 1. Read the following international words and give their Russian equivalents:

criminal, civil, command, activity, public, dispute, procedure, legal, compensation, action, private, individual, exclusively, argument.

 

Task 2. Give the verbs the following words are derived from:

violation, government, disputed, defendant, punishment, compensation, procedure, prosecution, exclusively, admissible, careless.

 

Task 3. Find the words with the similar meaning among the following:

crime, violation, murder, obligation, punishment, breach, manslaughter, penalty, offence, homicide, duty, different, state, matter, trial, to injure, responsible, various, tribunal, argument, country, question, to do harm, reason, liable.

 

TEXT E

CIVIL RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES

Sometimes they use two terms, civil liberties and civil rights, inter­changeably, although their meanings are different.

Civil liberties are freedoms that are guaranteed to the individual. Civil liberties declare what the government cannot do; in contrast, civil rights declare what the government must do or provide.

Civil rights are powers or privileges that are guaranteed to the individu­al and protected from arbitrary removal at the hands of the government or other individuals. The right to vote and the right to jury trial in criminal cases are civil rights.

Civil rights and civil liberties overlap with individual rights and liberties, but belong more to the area of social and public interests than do individ­ual rights, which belong mainly to the area of individual interests. They are concerned essentially with what individuals and groups may do within the law, e.g. stand for election to a public authority, rather than with what they may exact, e.g. social security. Civil rights may be regarded as attempts to give meaning to the ideal of equality under laws, and civil liberties as flow­ing from the ideal of freedom.

Civil rights protect certain general human needs and interests, but some­times conflict with other human needs and interests, this conflict has to be adjusted and resolved in the courts or by legislation. A civil right or liberty exists only in so far as it is legally recognized and protected, not merely if it is asserted or even proclaimed by a government or political party.

Civil liberties are distinguishable from moral liberty or freedom of the will; from political liberties, such as the right to elect and to stand for elec­tion; from 'human rights' or 'natural rights'; from economic liberties, such as freedom of contract, trade, competition, of organizing, and of striking; from religious liberties, such as freedom of belief and of worship; and from academic freedom; though there is considerable overlapping, and as law in general protects each of these groups of liberties, some would class all of these within the general group of civil liberties. Civil liberties were justi­fied by seventeenth — and eighteenth-century philosophers as inherent or inalienable rights. Historically most of them arose by way of successful re­ sistance to kings, harsh employers, unrepresentative parliaments, and the like.

The question what civil rights or liberties citizens enjoy under a partic­ular system of government and law, depends partly on what rights or liber­ties are conferred by constitution, code, statute, and case, but also, and .frequently more particularly, on how these rights or liberties are actually interpreted, and how far they can be and are secured and enforced, partic­ularly by minority groups.

TASKS

Task 1. Read the following international words and give their Russian equivalents:

term, civil, to guarantee, individual, to declare, contrast, privilege, jury, criminal, social, public, interest, group, ideal, general, human, conflict, legally, political, moral, natural, economic, contract, to organize, religious, academic, to class, philosopher, parliament, system, constitution, statute.

 

Task 2. Give the verbs the following words are derived from:

distinguishable, inherent, resistance, unrepresentative, government, constitution, interchangeably, meaning, removal, equality, legislation, considerable.

 

Task 3. Read the text again and find synonyms for the following words:

reciprocally, choose, (partly) coincide, decide, regulate, diverse, ensure, authority, freedom, defend, use, law, often, safety.

 

Task 4. Find the words with the opposite meaning among the following:

civil, public, security, freedom, equality, considerable, danger, minority, individual, imprisonment, majority, different, criminal, discrimination, minor, inherent, frequently, conferred, seldom, similar.

Task 5. Find the following words in the text. Then circle a), b) or c) to show which you think is the best equivalent.

1. declare

a) make known clearly or formally; announce

b) argue with somebody

c) disagree

2. provide

a) sell in bulk

b) give, supply

c) promise to do something

3. belong

a) be the property of

b) make somebody do something

c) cry loudly

4. attempt

a) effort to do something

b) large sum of money

c) difficult task

5. resistance

a) desire to oppose, antagonism

b) strong will

c) love at first glance

6. distinguishable

a) young and beautiful

b) very famous

c) different from

7. equality

a) important problem

b) the state of being the same in size, value, etc.

c) serious disease

 

Task 6. Translate the following words and word combinations into Russian:

to use terms, civil rights and liberties, to guarantee freedoms, to protect from arbitrary removal, the right to jury trial, to overlap, to be concerned with something, to stand for election, social security, human needs and interests, legally recognized, freedom of competition, freedom of belief and worship, inherent rights, to enjoy rights and liberties, to enforce smth.

TEXT B

DISABLED AMERICANS

Minority status need not be confined to race or ethnicity. After more than two decades of struggle, millions of handicapped Americans gained recog­nition in 1990 as an oppressed minority with the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act.

The law extends the protections embodied in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to people with physical or mental disabilities, including people with AIDS and recovering alcoholics and drug abusers. It guarantees access to employment, transportation, public accommodation, and communication services.

The roots of the handicapped rights movement stem from the period after World War II. Thousands of disabled veterans returned to a country and a society that were inhospitable to the needs of the handicapped.

Advocates for the disabled found a ready model in the existing civil rights laws. Opponents argued that the changes mandated by the law (such as access for those confined to wheelchairs) could cost billion of dollars, but supporters replied that the costs would be offset by an equal or greater re duction in federal aid to disabled people who would rather be working.

A change in the law, no matter how welcome, does not assure a change in attitudes. Laws that end racial discrimination do not extinguish racism, and laws that ban biased treatment of the disabled. But attitudinal barriers toward the handicapped, like similar attitudes toward other minorities, will wither, rights advocates claim, as the disabled become full participants in a society that once held them at bay.

(From : The Challenge of Democracy)

TASKS

  Task 1 . Give the English equivalents for the following:

• притесняемое меньшинство

• сторонники нового закона о людях с ограниченными возможностями

• три десятилетия назад

• свободный доступ

• из-за нетрудоспособности

• значительное сокращение помощи

• неспособный

• негостеприимные хозяева

• олицетворять новую идею о...

• гарантировать изменение

• компенсировать расходы

• барьеры в отношении к инвалидам

• наложить запрет

• гуманное отношение

Task 2. Give the opposites for the following words:

majority, obstacle, hospitable, ability, allow, set on fire, lose, increase.

Task 5. The problem of support and protection of the handicapped is a burning question of the day. This is an opinion of the law student. Translate it into English and say whether you agree or disagree with his opinion.

Люди с ограниченными возможностями принадлежат к тому меньшинству, которое нуждается в нашей поддержке и защите. Я против термина «инвалид». На мой взгляд, он не совсем корректен. Но это к делу не относится. Современное общество должно гаран­тировать равенство всем своим гражданам. Закон предоставляет всем право голосовать, баллотироваться в парламент и тому подобное. Но наш закон не признаёт гражданские права людей с ограниченными возможностями. Городской транспорт не приспособлен для людей, прикованных к инвалидному креслу. Они лишены возможности пе­редвигаться. Устройства для передвижения инвалидных кресел дол­жны быть неотъемлемой частью любого современного города. Сей­час предпринимаются кое-какие попытки изменить существующую ситуацию. Но никакие законы не изменят суровое отношение обще­ства к людям с ограниченными возможностями. Каждый должен за­ставить себя сам уничтожить барьер предрассудков.

 

THE LEGAL PROFESSION

Although many kinds of people working in or studying legal affairs are referred to as lawyers, the word really describes a person who has become officially qualified to act in certain legal matters because of examinations he has taken and professional experience he has gained.

Most countries have different groups of lawyers who each takes a par­ticular kind of examination in order to qualify to do particular jobs. In Ja­pan, a lawyer must decide whether he wants to take the examination to become an attorney, a public prosecutor or a judge. In England, the deci­sion is between becoming a barrister or a solicitor. Barristers specialize in arguing cases in front of a judge and have the right to be heard, the right of audience, even in the highest courts. They are not paid directly by clients but are employed by solicitors. Solicitors have also a right of audience in lower courts, but in higher courts, such as the Court of Appeal, they must have a barrister to argue their client's case. In general, it can be said that a barrister spends most of his time either in a courtroom or preparing his arguments for the court and a solicitor spends most of his time in an office giving advice to clients, making investigations and preparing documents.

If a person has a legal problem, he will go and see a solicitor. In fact there are at least 50,000 solicitors in Britain, and the number is increas­ing.

Many problems are dealt with exclusively by a solicitor. For instance, the solicitor deals with petty crimes and some matrimonial matters in Mag­istrates' Courts. He prepares the case and the evidence. He actually speaks in Court for you.

In a civil action he can speak in the County Court, when the case is one of divorce or recovering some debts. In the County Court the solicitor wears a black gown over his ordinary clothes.

A solicitor also deals with matters outside Court. He does the legal work involved in buying a house, for instance. He writes legal letters for you and carries on legal arguments outside Court. If you want to make a will the best man to advise you is a solicitor.

Barristers are different from solicitors. Barristers are experts in the in­terpretation of the Law. They are called in to advise on really difficult points. The barrister is also an expert on advocacy (the art of presenting cases in Court). Indeed, if you desire representation in any Court except the Mag­istrates' Court, you must have a barrister.

Barristers are rather remote figures. If you need one, for instance, you never see him without your solicitor being with him. Barristers do not have public offices in any street. They work in what are known as chambers* often in London. They belong to the institutions called Inns of Court,* which are ancient organizations rather like exclusive clubs.

In the USA the Justice Department is responsible for the faithful exe­cution of the laws under the President's authority. The main administra­tors of federal law enforcement are the ninety-four U.S. attorneys,* who are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.

There is a U.S. attorney in each federal judicial district. Their staffs of assistant attorneys vary in size with the amount of litigation in the district. U.S. attorneys have considerable discretion, which makes them powerful political figures. Their decision to prosecute or not affects the wealth, free­dom, rights, and reputation of the individuals and organizations in the dis­trict.

*chambers — адвокатская контора

*(the) Inns of Court — юридические корпорации, готовящие

адвокатов (четыре крупнейшие корпорации: the Inner Temple, the Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, Gray's Inn)

*US attorney — прокурор округа (в США)

TASKS

 

Task 1. Read the following international words and give their Russian equivalents:

legal, person, officially, to qualify, examination, professional, public, barrister, to specialize, appeal, client, argument, general, office, document, problem, civil, expert, interpretation, figure, organization, club, president, administrator, federal, assistant, political, reputation, individual, authority.

 

Task 2. Find the words with the similar meaning among the following:

to appoint, consent, litigation, affair, power, legal, certain, matter, to gain, job, judge, to employ, juridical, work, to argue, particular, to get, to hire, justice, to give advice, to prove, to try, authority, crime, to deal with, offence, chamber, to consult, to designate, approval, house, trial.

Task 3. Find the words with the opposite meaning among the following:

lower courts, to increase, petty, civil, legal, difficult, to decrease, illegal, higher courts, serious, criminal, easy, responsible, to prosecute, individual, to divorce, to defend, organization, to marry, irresponsible, different, ordinary, the same, exclusive, expert, ancient, layman, modern.

 

Task 4. Give the verbs the following words are derived from:

argument, prosecutor, investigation, increasing, interpretation, institution, organization, administrator, enforcement, judicial, assistant, considerable.

 

 Task 5. Translate the following word combinations:

legal affairs; to gain experience; different groups of lawyers; to do particular jobs; public prosecutor; to argue a case; the right of audience; to prepare arguments; to give advice; to make investigations; to deal with problems; petty crimes; matrimonial matters; to prepare evidence; to recover debts; to write legal letters; to carry on legal arguments; to make a will; interpretation of the law; to be an expert on advocacy; to be responsible for the execution of the laws; law enforcement; with the advice and consent of the Senate; the amount of litigation; considerable discretion.

 

Task 6. Find in the text words & phrases with the following meanings:

1)  connected with the law, required by the law;

2)  gathering of persons for the purpose of hearing a speaker, etc.;

3)  crimes which are not serious;

4)  an English lawyer who specializes in arguing cases and representa­tion in any court;

5)  legal ending of a marriage;

6)  an English lawyer who gives advice to clients, investigates, prepares documents;

7)  support of a client in a Court;

8)  the carrying out a piece of work;

9)  power or right to give orders;

10) US lawyers having the right to prosecute.

LAWYERS PERFORM

FOUR MAJOR FUNCTIONS

First, lawyers counsel. This means that lawyers offer advice, even if it is advice their clients would prefer not to hear. Of course, lawyers regu­larly counsel clients during negotiations & litigation.

Second, lawyers negotiate. This means that they mediate between competing interests aiming for results that will prove advantageous to their clients and, if possible, their opponents.

Third, lawyers draft documents. This is probably their most intel­lectually challenging function.

Fourth, they litigate. This is the skill most people associate with lawyers. Ironically, only a small fraction of all lawyers devote much time to courtroom activities. In fact, the majority of attorneys never venture a courthouse except to file legal papers with a clerk.

TEXT B

ENTERING THE PROFESSION

How does someone become a lawyer?

In some countries in order to practise as a lawyer it is necessary to get a university degree in law. However, in others, a degree may be insufficient; professional examinations must be passed. In Britain, it is not in fact necessary to have a degree, although nowadays most people entering the profession do. The main requirement is to pass the Bar Final examination* (for barristers) or the Law Society Final examination* (for solicitors). Someone with University degree in a subject other than law needs first to take a preparatory course. Someone without a degree at all may also prepare for the final examination, but this will take several years. In most countries, lawyers will tell you that the time they spent studying for their law finals was one of the worst periods of their life! This is because an enormous number of procedural rules covering a wide area of law must be memorized. In Japan, where there are relatively few lawyers, the examinations are supposed to be particularly hard: less than 5 percent of candidates pass. Even after passing the examination, though, a lawyer is not necessarily qualified. A solicitor in England, for example, must then spend two years as an arti cled clerk, during this time his work is closely supervised by an experienced lawyer, and he must take further courses. A barrister must spend a similar year as a pupil.

The rate at which the legal profession grows is terrific. In the 21^st century the number of lawyers will probably outpace the rate of population growth.

Why is the career in law so popular? In the USA the average salary of experienced lawyers in private practice is more than $100,000.

Lawyers’ salaries are substantially greater than those of many other pro­fessionals. The glamour of legal practice strengthens the attraction of its financial rewards.

* the Bar Final examination — экзамен, который сдается при поступлении в Коллегию Адвокатов

* the Law Society Final examination — экзамен, дающий право быть членом Общества юристов (профессионального союза солиситоров)

I. Circle a); b) or с ) to complete the sentence.

1) The British lawyers are required________.

a) to pass professional exams;

b) to work as a clerk for 5 years after graduating from a university;

c) wear black suits

2) The requirements for barristers and solicitors are_________.

a) identical;

b) partially identical;

c) different

3) In Japan the professional law exams are__________.

a) difficult to pass;

b) not practiced;

c) easy to pass

4) A barrister must work for a year as__________.

a) an articled clerk;

b) a pupil;

c) an attorney

5) The average salary of an experienced lawyer is_________.      

a) very low;

b) ridiculous;

c) much higher than those of other professionals

TASKS

WHAT IS LAW

Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. Are laws for ordinary people or for lawyers?

2. Do you always observe the law?

3. Do you think laws change in the course of time?

 

The English word “law” refers to limits upon various forms of behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people or even natural phenomena usually behave. An example is the rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent laws of economics.

Other laws are prescriptive – they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers that prescribe how fast we should drive. In all societies relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that’s informal rules of social and moral behaviour. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power. Thus we may say that the law is the body of rules with authority (power) to govern the actions and relations of people in an organized political community or among states. Laws reflect the values and beliefs of people. Laws organize society and guarantee peace and good order.

There are various spheres of law. Administrative law is the area of law which is related to the functions and powers of the government organizations and how they operate in practice to administer government policy. Criminal law is the law relating to crime. It studies illegal conduct for which a person may be prosecuted and punished by the state. Civil law is the law relating to the rights and duties of private persons. It deals with judging private quarrels between people. In many countries civil law is based on Roman Law. Constitutional law is the law relating to the legal structure of government in a state. It defines the principal organs of government and their relation to each other and to the individual. Common law is the body of law based on custom which is administered and developed by the courts in judicial decisions. Company law is the area of law which is related to businesses organized as companies. It regulates the formation, registration, operation and bankruptcy of companies of all kinds. Family law is the area of law which is related to the organization of the family and the legal relations of its members. It also settles problems of divorce. Special courts decide how to divide the couple's property, and who will get custody of children. Land law is the area of law which deals with rights and interests related to owning and using land. Land is the most important form of property, so the name for the law of property in general. Labour law is the area of law relating to the employment of workers. It includes their contracts and conditions of work, trade unions and the legal aspects of industrial relations. Penal law is that part of law which deals with punishment of persons found guilty by the court. It studies different penal systems and defines effective penal policy. International law is the system of law which regulates relations between states. It deals with such subjects as: the freedom of the seas; the rules of war and neutrality, diplomatic law. The United Nations Organizations has the right to force its member countries to obey international law.

TASKS

Task 1. Read the following words correctly:

to refer, phenomena, to behave, behaviour, custom, consistent, moral, description, value, prescriptive, order, to guarantee, sphere, administrative, conduct, criminal, to punish, constitutional, common, company, duty, to regulate, divorce, bankruptcy, legal, property, to divide, custody, to obey, employment, to impose, to prosecute, penal, society, Roman, contract, to define, labour, civil.

 

Task 2. Translate the following noun groups into Russian:

speed limits, law enforcement, government policy, government organizations, company law, land law, the couple’s property, labour law, trade unions, family law, member countries (states).

 

Task 3 . Find the words with the similar meaning among the following:

law, society, govern, power, body, belief, sphere, deal with, punish, principal, relation, couple, behaviour, obey, community, administer, authority, organ, custom, field, penalize, main, connection, pair, conduct, religion, consider, observe.

 

 Task 5 .  Find the words with the opposite meaning among the following:

descriptive, consistent, social, formal, organize, practice, prosecute, legal, private, quarrel, divorce, divide, land, prescriptive, inconsistent, individual, informal, disorganize, theory, defend, illegal, common, peace, marriage, unite, sea.

Task 6. Translate the following words and word combinations into Russian:

forms of behaviour; natural phenomena; to impose limits (punishment, penalty); relations between people; informal rules; to regulate relations; organized political community; to reflect values; to guarantee peace and good order; administrative law; criminal law; penal law; constitutional law; common law; company law; family law; land law; labour law; international law; to obey law; private property; to find quality; effective penal policy; conditions of work; to deal with; freedom of the seas; to force member countries to obey international law; the United Nations Organization.

Task 7 . Translate the words and word combinations from Russian into English:

общественное и моральное поведение, отношения между людьми, неформальные правила, применять законы, система правил, отражать ценности и убеждения, гарантировать мир и порядок, функции и полномочия правительственных организаций, противоправное поведение преступное поведение, осуществлять политику правительства, может быть обвинен и наказан государством, права и обязанности частных лиц, иметь дело с чем-либо (касаться чего-либо), уголовное право, гражданское право, уголовно-исполнительное право, конституционное право, правовые отношения членов семьи, решать проблемы развода, делить имущество, земельное право, владение и пользование землей, наем рабочей силы, условия труда, признать виновным в судебном порядке, эффективная уголовно-исполнительная практика (политика), уголовно-исполнительные системы, определять политику, регулировать отношения между государствами, дипломатическое право.

 

Task 8 . Answer the following questions and try to reproduce the text with the help of the answers to the questions:

1. What does the English word “law” refer to?

2. What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive laws?

3. What are some of the laws like?

5. Against whom are laws enforced?

5. What do laws reflect?

6. What do they organize?

     7. What is administrative law related to?

8. What conduct does criminal law study?

9. What is civil law relating to? What does it deal with?

11. What does constitutional law define?

11. What is common law based on?

12. What area is the company law related to?

     13. What area is family law related to?

14. Why is land law very important?

15. What does labour law include?

16. What is penal law?

17. What subjects does international law deal with?

18. What right does the UNO have?

Кашинцева И.Л.

А64	Английский язык: учебное пособие для курсантов и студентов юридического факультета. – Рязань: Академия ФСИН России, 2013. – 147 с.

 

Учебное пособие составлено на основе рабочей программы учебной дисциплины.

Обсуждено и утверждено на заседании кафедры иностранных языков 12 февраля 2013 г., протокол № 6.

 

 

Заведующий обеспечивающей кафедрой

кандидат педагогических наук, доцент                                          Г.Б. Андреева

 

Учебное издание

КАШИНЦЕВА Ирина Львовна

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Учебное пособие

Технический редактор Л.И. Семочкина Подписано в печать   Формат 60 х 84 1/16. Бумага офсетная. Гарнитура Times. Печ. л. 9,2. Тираж экз. Заказ № _____.	Редакционно-издательский отдел Академии ФСИН России 390036, г. Рязань, ул. Сенная, 1 Отпечатано: Отделение полиграфии РИО Академии ФСИН России 390036, г. Рязань, ул. Сенная, 1
	ББК Ш143.21(0) р30 © Кашинцева И.Л., 2013 © Академия ФСИН России, 2013

 

 

Пояснительная записка

 

Предлагаемое учебное пособие предназначено для курсантов и студентов юридического факультета, специализирующихся в области гражданского права и уголовного права, закончивших первый этап изучения курса английского языка в вузе «Иностранный язык для общих целей».

Пособие имеет ярко выраженную профессиональную направленность и ставит своей целью сформировать у обучаемых навыки и умения самостоятельного чтения оригинальной литературы по специальности, умение быстро извлекать необходимую информацию в пределах предлагаемой тематики, аннотировать и реферировать текст профессионального профиля в оригинале. Эти цели определяют структуру пособия, подбор языкового материала, построение систем упражнений.

Учебно-методическое пособие включает 11 разделов, посвященных праву и истории права, видам права (государственное, административное, уголовное, гражданское), уголовному и гражданскому судопроизводству англоязычных стран. В качестве основного материала для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы в каждом разделе предусмотрен опорный текст. Он предназначен для изучающего чтения и снабжен системой лексических и грамматических упражнений. Целью грамматических заданий является иллюстрация употребления конструкций, встречающихся в опорном тексте, их осмысление и закрепление.

В пределах раздела, кроме опорного текста, представлены разнообразные тексты различной степени сложности. Многотекстовость позволяет использовать разноцелевое чтение, а именно: просмотровое, ознакомительное, поисковое, изучающее.

 

 

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

 

Lesson 1. Grammar: Sequence Of Tenses……………………………... Text A: What Is Law……………………………………………………. Text B: Kinds Of Law In The United States………………………………..	6 10 17
Lesson 2. Grammar: Conditional Sentences…………………………… Text A: History Of The Law…………………………………………….. Text B: Law In Ancient Greece And Rome……………………………... Text C: How Did The British Law Develop?............................................ Text D: The Magna Carta……………………………………………….	23 26 28 29 30
Lesson 3. Grammar: Complex Object, Revision Of Perfect Forms, Passive Voice…………………………………………………………….. Text A: Constitutional Law And Its Nature……………………………... Text B: Characteristics Of Constitutions………………………………... Text C: Unitary, Federal, And Regionalist Systems……………………. Text D: Executives And Legislatures……………………………………	34 37 40 41 43
Lesson 4. Grammar: Complex Subject, Revision Of Perfect Forms, Passive Voice…………………………………………………………….. Text A: Administrative Law…………………………………………….. Text B: Judicial Review Of Administration…………………………......	54 57 60
Lesson 5. Grammar: Functions Of The Verb “To Be”………………… Text A: Criminal Law…………………………………………………… Text B:  Elements Of Crime……………………………………………..	67 69 72
Lesson 6. Grammar: Functions Of The Verb “To Have”…………….. Text A: Types Of Crimes………………………………………………… Text B: How Are Crimes Classified?.......................................................	76 77 80
Lesson 7. Grammar: Revision Of Ing-Forms, Passive Voice Text A: Civil Law……………………………………………………….. Text B: Civil Proceedings……………………………………………….. Text C: Civil Courts……………………………………………………...	88 90 90
Lesson 8. Grammar: Revision Of Tenses, Complex Subject, Complex Object, Functions Of The Verbs “To Be” And “To Have” Text A: The Law And The Family (Marriage Law)……………………..	95
Lesson 9. Grammar: Revision Of The Functions Of The Infinitive   Text A: How Is The Law Enforced?.......................................................... Text B: What Is A Court?.................................................................................... Text C: Criminal And Civil Cases………………………………………. Text D: What Is The Procedure In A Criminal Action?............................... Text E: What Is The Procedure In A Civil Action?......................................	107 110 112 116 118
Lesson 10. Grammar: Revision Of Tenses, Complex Subject, Participle I, Participle Ii, Functions Of The Verbs “To Be” And “To Have” Text A: Civil Rights And Liberties……………………………………… Text B: Disabled Americans……………………………………………..	124 131
Lesson 11. Grammar: Revision Of Tenses, Conditional Sentences, Complex Subject, Complex Object Text A: The Legal Profession…………………………………………… Text B: Entering The Profession……………………………………..….	136 144

LESSON 1

 

GRAMMAR: SEQUENCE OF TENSES

TEXT A: WHAT IS LAW

TEXT B: KINDS OF LAW IN THE UNITED STATES

 

Sequence of Tenses (Согласование времен)

Правило согласования времен распространяется на придаточные дополнительные предложения. Это правило заключается в следующем:

1. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в настоящем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного предложения может стоять в любом требуемом по смыслу времени.

 

	Главное предложение	Придаточное предложение
Настоящее время   Present Indefinite	He knows that Он знает, что	Настоящее время	I am a student of the Law department. Я студент юридического факультета.
		Прошедшее время	I was a student of the Law department. Я был студентом юридического факультета.
		Будущее время	I shall be a student of the Law department. Я буду студентом юридического факультета

 

2. Если же сказуемое главного предложения стоит в Past Indefinite (прошедшем времени), то сказуемое дополнительного придаточного предложения тоже должно стоять в одном из прошедших времен.

	Главное  предложение	Придаточное предложение
Прошедшее время   Past Indefinite	He knew that Он знал, что	Past Indefinite (переводится настоящим временем)	I was a student of the Law department. Я студент юридического факультета.
		Past Perfect (переводится прошедшим временем)	I had been a student of the Law department. Я был студентом юридического факультета.
		Future-in-the-Past (переводится будущим временем)	I should be a student of the Law department. Я буду студентом юридического факультета

 

Если действия, выраженные сказуемыми обоих предложений, совершаются одновременно, то в придаточном предложении глагол-сказуемое употребляется в форме Past Indefinite или Past Continuous, которые в данном случае переводятся на русский язык глаголом в форме настоящего времени.

He said that at your seminars you discussed some problems of law.	Он сказал, что на семинарах вы обсуждаете проблемы права.
They said that he was making a report.	Они сказали, что он делает доклад (сейчас).

 

Если действие, выраженное сказуемым придаточного предложения, предшествовало действию, выраженному сказуемым главного предложения, то в придаточном предложении употребляется Past Perfect или Past Perfect Continuous, которые всегда переводятся глаголом в форме прошедшего времени.

 

He said that he had written his article.	Он сказал, что написал свою статью.

Если в придаточном предложении речь идет о будущем, то употребляются формы should и would вместо shall и will. Эта форма английского глагола называется Future-in-the-Past и переводится русским глаголом в будущем времени:

He said that he would make a report.	Он сказал, что сделает доклад.

Правило согласования времен соблюдается, если дополнительное придаточное предложение, в свою очередь, является сложноподчиненным предложением с придаточным обстоятельственным условия или времени, зависимым от другого предложения со сказуемым, выраженным глаголом в форме Past Indefinite или Future-in-the-Past.

 

She knew that she would do it if she had time.	Она знала, что сделает это, если у нее будет время.
He said that he would answer the letter immediately when he received it.	Он сказал, что немедленно ответит на письмо, когда его получит.

Согласование времен не соблюдается:

1. В придаточных дополнительных предложениях, в состав сказуемого которых входят модальные глаголы must, should:

 

He said that you must do it as soon as possible.

Он сказал, что ты должен сделать это как можно скорее.

2. В тех случаях, когда сказуемое придаточного дополнительного предложения выражено глаголом в сослагательном наклонении:

 

Reality demanded that the work of higher and special secondary school be further improved.

Жизнь требовала, чтобы работа высшей и специальной средней школы была в дальнейшем улучшена.

 

3. Когда в дополнительном придаточном предложении имеется в виду общеизвестный факт или истина:

 

The teacher told his pupils that water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade.

Учитель сказал ученикам, что вода замерзает при температуре 00 С.

Task 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to Sequence of Tenses:

1. I knew that you were ill. 2. I knew that you had been ill. 3. We found that she left home at 8 o’clock every morning. 4. We found that she had left home at 8o’clock that morning. 5. When he learnt that his son always received excellent marks in all the subjects at school, he was very pleased. 6. When he learnt that his son had received an excellent mark at school, he was very pleased. 7. We didn’t know where our friends went every evening. 8. We didn’t know where our friends had gone. 9. She said that her best friend was a doctor. 10. She said that her best friend had been a doctor. 11. I didn’t know that you worked at the Hermitage. 12. I didn’t know that you had worked at the Hermitage.

Task 2. Choose the right form of the verb given in brackets:

1. He said that he (is staying, was staying) at the “Ritz” Hotel. 2. They realized that they (lost, had lost) their way in the dark. 3. He asked me where I (study, studied). 4. I thought that I (shall finish, should finish) my work at that time. 5. He says that he (works, worked) at school two year ago. 6. Victor said he (is, was) very busy. 7. My friend asked me who (is playing, was playing) the piano in the sitting-room. 8. He said he (will come, would come) to the station to see me off. 9. I was sure that he (posted, had posted) the letter. 10. I think the weather (will be, would be) fine next week. I hope it (will not change, would not change) for the worse. 11. I knew that he (is, was) a very clever man. 12. I want to know what he (has bought, had bought) for her birthday. 13. I asked my sister to tell me what she (has seen, had seen) at the museum.

Task 3. Make the following sentences complex, using the beginning given in brackets. Mind Sequence of Tenses.

E.g. The children are playing in the yard. (She thought)

She thought that the children were playing in the yard.

1. Her friend will come to see her. (She hoped) 2. Father has repaired his bicycle. (He thought) 3. She knows English very well. (I supposed) 4. Our sportsmen will win the game. (We were sure) 5. She made no mistakes in her dictation. (She was glad) 6. He works at his English hard. (I knew) 7. She dances better than anybody else. (I was told) 8. My cousin has received a very interesting offer from his firm. (I learnt) 9. She will come to see us. (My aunt wrote in her letter) 10. He is painting a new picture. (We heard) 11. His new picture will be a masterpiece. (We were sure) 12. You will fall and break your leg. (I was afraid) 13. My friend has never been to Washington. (I knew) 14. She never drinks milk. (I was told) 15. She is a very talented singer. (We were told) 16. They live a happy life. (We knew) 17. He doesn’t know German at all. (I found out)

Task 4. Complete the sentences:

1. I knew that …

2. They thought that …

3. I stressed that …

4. We decided that …

5. The woman said that …

6. The teacher told us that …

7. The speaker informed us that …

8. He complained that …

9. The reporter noted that …

10. The student explained that …

11.  I didn’t know that …

12.  The officer said that …

13.  I found out that …

14.  We were sure that …

15.  I was glad to know that …

16.  We heard that …

 

TEXT A

 

Before reading the text 1) learn to pronounce the following words correctly:

[o:] law enforce informal important order organized	[o] phenomena economics moral belong property conduct prosecute quarrel authority	[i] descriptive prescriptive particular administrative decision principal judicial interest	[e] penalty together protect necessary develop effective regulate
[æ] natural family value action bankruptcy neutrality establish gravity	[ ] government custom cultural suffer function company couple custody	[i:] illegal penal freedom peace belief guarantee	[ju:] community refuse produce duty
[iә] experience sphere	[ә :] refer work person	[eә] various rarely area	[aiә] society

2) translate the following international words and give more than one translation of them if possible:

various, authority, phenomena, limits, social, guarantee, value, function, order, administer, civil, constitutional, legal, structure, company, business, formation, registration, special, general, labour, aspect, condition, industrial, state, neutrality, reflect, function, private, contract.

WHAT IS LAW

Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. Are laws for ordinary people or for lawyers?

2. Do you always observe the law?

3. Do you think laws change in the course of time?

 

The English word “law” refers to limits upon various forms of behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people or even natural phenomena usually behave. An example is the rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent laws of economics.

Other laws are prescriptive – they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers that prescribe how fast we should drive. In all societies relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that’s informal rules of social and moral behaviour. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power. Thus we may say that the law is the body of rules with authority (power) to govern the actions and relations of people in an organized political community or among states. Laws reflect the values and beliefs of people. Laws organize society and guarantee peace and good order.

There are various spheres of law. Administrative law is the area of law which is related to the functions and powers of the government organizations and how they operate in practice to administer government policy. Criminal law is the law relating to crime. It studies illegal conduct for which a person may be prosecuted and punished by the state. Civil law is the law relating to the rights and duties of private persons. It deals with judging private quarrels between people. In many countries civil law is based on Roman Law. Constitutional law is the law relating to the legal structure of government in a state. It defines the principal organs of government and their relation to each other and to the individual. Common law is the body of law based on custom which is administered and developed by the courts in judicial decisions. Company law is the area of law which is related to businesses organized as companies. It regulates the formation, registration, operation and bankruptcy of companies of all kinds. Family law is the area of law which is related to the organization of the family and the legal relations of its members. It also settles problems of divorce. Special courts decide how to divide the couple's property, and who will get custody of children. Land law is the area of law which deals with rights and interests related to owning and using land. Land is the most important form of property, so the name for the law of property in general. Labour law is the area of law relating to the employment of workers. It includes their contracts and conditions of work, trade unions and the legal aspects of industrial relations. Penal law is that part of law which deals with punishment of persons found guilty by the court. It studies different penal systems and defines effective penal policy. International law is the system of law which regulates relations between states. It deals with such subjects as: the freedom of the seas; the rules of war and neutrality, diplomatic law. The United Nations Organizations has the right to force its member countries to obey international law.

TASKS

Task 1. Read the following words correctly:

to refer, phenomena, to behave, behaviour, custom, consistent, moral, description, value, prescriptive, order, to guarantee, sphere, administrative, conduct, criminal, to punish, constitutional, common, company, duty, to regulate, divorce, bankruptcy, legal, property, to divide, custody, to obey, employment, to impose, to prosecute, penal, society, Roman, contract, to define, labour, civil.

 

Task 2. Translate the following noun groups into Russian:

speed limits, law enforcement, government policy, government organizations, company law, land law, the couple’s property, labour law, trade unions, family law, member countries (states).

 

Task 3. Read the following words and derivatives and state what part of speech the given words are and translate them into Russian:

to behave – behaviour – behavioral; to prescribe – prescriptive – prescriptions; economy – economic – economical – economics; to impose – imposition; penal – penalty – to penalize; society – social – resocialization; to relate – relations – relatives; to govern – government – governmental; authority – authoritative – to authorize; crime – a crime – criminality; to administer – administrative – administrator – administration; to punish – punishment – punitive; to define – definite – indefinite – definition; a principle – principal – a principal; a judge – to judge – judgment – judicial – judiciary; to constitute – constitution – constitutional; bankrupt – bankruptcy; custody – custodial; act – action – activity; to employ – employee – employment; guilt – guilty; to force – to enforce – enforcement; to believe – belief.

 

Task 4 . Find the words with the similar meaning among the following:

law, society, govern, power, body, belief, sphere, deal with, punish, principal, relation, couple, behaviour, obey, community, administer, authority, organ, custom, field, penalize, main, connection, pair, conduct, religion, consider, observe.

 

 Task 5 .  Find the words with the opposite meaning among the following:

descriptive, consistent, social, formal, organize, practice, prosecute, legal, private, quarrel, divorce, divide, land, prescriptive, inconsistent, individual, informal, disorganize, theory, defend, illegal, common, peace, marriage, unite, sea.

Task 6. Translate the following words and word combinations into Russian:

forms of behaviour; natural phenomena; to impose limits (punishment, penalty); relations between people; informal rules; to regulate relations; organized political community; to reflect values; to guarantee peace and good order; administrative law; criminal law; penal law; constitutional law; common law; company law; family law; land law; labour law; international law; to obey law; private property; to find quality; effective penal policy; conditions of work; to deal with; freedom of the seas; to force member countries to obey international law; the United Nations Organization.

Task 7 . Translate the words and word combinations from Russian into English:

общественное и моральное поведение, отношения между людьми, неформальные правила, применять законы, система правил, отражать ценности и убеждения, гарантировать мир и порядок, функции и полномочия правительственных организаций, противоправное поведение преступное поведение, осуществлять политику правительства, может быть обвинен и наказан государством, права и обязанности частных лиц, иметь дело с чем-либо (касаться чего-либо), уголовное право, гражданское право, уголовно-исполнительное право, конституционное право, правовые отношения членов семьи, решать проблемы развода, делить имущество, земельное право, владение и пользование землей, наем рабочей силы, условия труда, признать виновным в судебном порядке, эффективная уголовно-исполнительная практика (политика), уголовно-исполнительные системы, определять политику, регулировать отношения между государствами, дипломатическое право.