1. If you are m a hurry, it can be difficult to make a maximum/rational decision.

2. The amount of money you have to spend is your budget constraint / deciding factor.

3. The maximum/rational speed limit on this road is 120 kilometers per hour.

4. Quality is often the deciding factor/budget constraint when people choose something to buy.

5. Some people calculate/assume how much they

spend every week.

6. Green is a combination / an alternative of yellow and blue.

7. When you buy something from a shop, you make a purchase/budget constraint.

8. When you calculate / assume something is true, you guess that it is true.

9. The use or satisfaction you get from something

you buy is called utility / purchase.

10. Olive oil is a healthy alternative/combination to butter.

Now read the text again and answer the questions.

1. According to neoclassical economists, what do consumers want?

A The most satisfaction at the lowest cost.

В The cheapest product.

C To spend all their money.

2. What is budget constraint?

A An amount of money you want to save.

B A combination of money and satisfaction.

C The total amount of money you have to spend.

3. What is utility?

A How much of a product you get.

B The satisfaction you get from a product or service.

C The cost of a product.

4. What explains marginal utility?

A The more satisfaction something gives you, the more you want it.

B The more satisfaction something gives you, the less you want it.

C The more you have of something, the less satisfaction it gives you.

5. What do neoclassical economists believe about consumers?

A They make logical decisions.

B They always know what they want before they go shopping.

C They don't know what they want.

Costs and supply

Companies have to spend money in order to make money. The money they spend to manufacture their goods or provide their services are called costs. Costs are important. Any company that doesn't keep track of costs will soon be in trouble. And there are many different kinds of costs to keep track of such as fixed costs and variable costs.

Why are costs important? Well, for two reasons: Firstly, there is a relationship between costs and profit. Profit is overall revenue minus costs. Secondly, there is a relationship between costs and supply. To understand this relationship, we need to look at some types of cost.

One type is fixed costs. Fixed costs are costs that don't change. They are costs that the company has to pay each month, for example, or each year. The value of fixed costs will not rise or fall in the short term. Examples include the rent the company pays, the interest they have to pay each month on any loans and the salaries they have to pay for permanent employees. The good news about fixed costs is that they don't change with increases in production. For example, imagine a company produces 1,000 pens in January and 2,000 pens in February. The rent for the factory remains the same for both months. Variable costs, however, change (vary) with the size of production. The more pens the company produces, the more these costs increase. Examples of variable costs are the raw materials needed for production, the cost of electricity and the cost of maintaining machines that are working more. Also, the company may need to get more part-time employees. Their hourly pay is another variable cost. In unit 1 we said that the price of a product or service increases as supply increases. Variable costs are the reason why.

In a perfect world, variable costs will increase steadily as production increases. This is called constant return to scale and it is shown in figure 3. However, this is not a perfect world! Sometimes, variable costs rise at a faster rate than production. This nasty situation, which is called a dis-economy of scale, is shown in figure 4. On the other hand, companies sometimes get lucky. Variable costs can rise at a much slower rate than production. This is called an economy of scale, and is shown in figure 5 below.

Переведите на английский язык:

1. Если у вас много денег, и вы хотите что-нибудь купить, вы всегда сталкиваетесь с ограничением имеющихся средств.

2. Полезность товаров в наборе определятся полезностью каждого товара и их количеством.

3. Предельная полезность — это полезность от потребления дополнительной единицы блага.

4. Издержки — это деньги, которые тратятся, чтобы произвести товары или предоставить услуги. Например, это арендная плата, проценты по кредитам, стоимость электричества и сырья.

5. Постоянные издержки не меняются ни в краткосрочном периоде, ни при росте объёмов производства.

6. Переменные издержки меняются в зависимости от размеров производства. Примером таких издержек может быть сырьё, необходимое для производства товаров.

7. Экономия, обусловленная ростом масштабов производства, — это ситуация, при которой переменные издержки растут гораздо медленнее, чем растёт объём производства.

Costs and supply