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Part 1
The European Organization for Nuclear Research known as CERN is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border and has 22 member states.
The term CERN is also used to refer to the laboratory, which in 2013 had 2513 staff members, and hosted some 12313 fellows, associates, apprentices as well as visiting scientists and engineers representing 608 universities and research facilities.
CERN’s main function is to provide the particle accelerators and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics research – numerous experiments have been constructed at CERN as a result of international collaborations.
CERN is the birthplace of the World Wide Web. The main site at Meyrin has a large computer facility containing powerful data processing facilities, primarily for experimental-data analysis; because of the need to make these facilities available to researchers elsewhere, it has historically been a major wide area network hub.
Today, CERN’s main area of research is particle physics – the study of the fundamental constituents of matter and the forces acting between them. Because of this, the laboratory operated by CERN is often referred to as the European Laboratory for Particle Physics.
Many activities at CERN currently involve operating the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the experiments for it. The LHC represents a large-scale, worldwide scientific cooperation project.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator. It first started up on 10 September 2008, and remains the latest addition to CERN’s accelerator complex. The LHC lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres in circumference, as deep as 175 metres beneath the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland.
Inside the accelerator, two high-energy particle beams travel at close to the speed of light before they are made to collide. The beams travel in opposite directions in separate beam pipes – two tubes kept at ultrahigh vacuum. They are guided around the accelerator ring by a strong magnetic field maintained by superconducting electromagnets. The electromagnets are built from coils of special electric cable that operates in a superconducting state, efficiently conducting electricity without resistance or loss of energy. This requires chilling the magnets to - 271.3°C – a temperature colder than outer space. For this reason, much of the accelerator is connected to a distribution system of liquid helium, which cools the magnets, as well as to other supply services.
Thousands of magnets of different varieties and sizes are used to direct the beams around the accelerator. These include 1232 dipole magnets 15 metres in length which bend the beams, and 392 quadruple magnets, each 5–7 metres long, which focus the beams. Just prior to collision, another type of magnet is used to «squeeze» the particles closer together to increase the chances of collisions.
All the controls for the accelerator, its services and technical infrastructure are housed under one roof at the CERN Control Centre. From here, the beams inside the LHC are made to collide at four locations around the accelerator ring, corresponding to the positions of four particle detectors – ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb.
The LHC is the largest machine in the world. It took thousands of scientists, engineers and technicians to plan and build, and it continues to operate at the very boundaries of scientific knowledge.
Part II
NASA and its Projects
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.
NASA is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System, advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate’s Heliophysics Research Program, exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons, and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs. NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite.
NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial satellites into Earth orbit for scientific and communications purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and including «grand tours» of the outer planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the Space Race with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle, and developed LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations including post-Soviet Russia. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter.
The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA’s Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment occurred in 2016. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.
The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020, and may be extended beyond 2028.
Other projects of NASA
The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS. The development of these vehicles was under a fixed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successful completed the milestone. Private companies were also required to have some «skin in the game» which refers raising an unspecified amount of private investment for their proposal.
The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth. It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace. In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270 million was divided among four companies. In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems. In 2014, the winners of the final round were announced. SpaceX’s Dragon V2 received a contract valued up to $2.6 billion and Boeing’s CST-100 (to be launched on an Atlas V) received a contract valued up to $4.2 billion. NASA expects these vehicles to begin transporting humans to the ISS in 2017.
Comprehension Check
1. Answer the questions:
1. What is CERN?
2. Where is the organization based?
3. What is CERN’s main function?
4. What is the Large Hadron Collider?
5. Where is it located?
6. How does the Large Hadron Collider work?
7. What is NASA?
8. What are the main aims of NASA?
9. What kind of spaceflight programs did NASA conduct?
10. What are the most notable projects of NASA?
2. Decide whether these statements are true, false or information is not available:
1. The European Organization for Nuclear Research is responsible for the civilian space program as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.
2. CERN is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border.
3. CERN’s main function is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System.
4. CERN is also the birthplace of the telecommunication.
5. The Large Hadron Collider is one of the projects of NASA.
6. Inside the accelerator, two high-energy particle beams travel at close to the speed of light before they are made to collide.
7. The LHC is in operating now.
8. NASA deals with the studying of Earth through the Earth Observing System
9. The International Space Station collaborates with Russian, Chinese and British partners.
10. The purpose of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) is creating of American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS.
11. The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated for creating European commercially operated uncrewed spacecraft.
12. There are some filial agencies of NASA throughout the worlds.
Grammar in Focus
1. Translate the sentences into the Russian. State the type of the Clauses:
1. Why he did not come is still not known.
2. What’s worrying me now is the state of her health.
3. Whether he’ll agree is another question.
4. The trouble is that we’ve got very little time.
5. That’s what I want to tell you.
6. He uses new programs which he usually downloads on the Internet.
7. Do you remember where he lives?
8. I can’t understand what you are laughing at.
9. They said that they did all the tasks.
10. I don’t know when he will come.
2. Read and analyze the sentences with the Object Clause:
1. The young engineer is not quite sure what he should do with this new device.
2. The majority of the searchers don’t know who allows to carry on such dangerous experiments.
3. The head engineer doesn’t know when the new equipment will be delivered.
4. You may rely on it that I will give you a full account.
5. I think we will complete our project in time.
6. It was remarked that the clock began to strike, and I began to cry simultaneously.
7. I am not sure whether he will take part in this conference.
8. Are you aware that your time is nearly up?
9. Mary phones us every day and says she intends coming on Saturday.
10. Everybody knows that one must study hard to master foreign languages.
3.* Translate the sentences with the Attribute Clause. Fill in the
suitable connecting words:
1. My youngest daughter ... was born in the south, cannot bear the northern climate.
2. All ... is written here is true.
3. The river … flows through London is called the Thames.
4. The buildings and the people ... we saw abroad seemed so strange.
5. This, it not such an answer ... we expected.
6. This is not the same road ... we passed an hour ago.
7. Is this the best room … you can offer me?
8. I enjoy walking in the old part ... still surrounds the former manor-house used as a school-building now.
9. The dog frightens all ... come near the house.
10. We have now exhausted all ... can be got in the library.
11. The space ... she had been standing was empty.
12. He’s always talking about that railroad ... he works.
Speaking Workshop
1. Speak about:
1. Your own opinion about the possibilities of the international scientific projects.
2. The use of some international scientific projects in our daily life.
2. Discuss these questions with your partner:
1. Do you know any interesting facts about other international scientific projects? Share this information with your partner.
2. What features of character must any scientist have in order to take part in the development of the international scientific projects?
3. Pros and cons of the scientific projects.
Дата: 2019-12-09, просмотров: 391.