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They appeared later: -ME – Future Tense, Perfect, Passive and Subjunctive forms; -NE – Continuous and Do-forms; They consisted of 2 elements: 1. a verb of broad semantics and high frequency (an auxiliary); 2.a non-finite form (Infinitive, Participle 1, 2).
Future-Tense Forms :
In OE Future actions were expressed by Present-Tense forms and modal phrases with sculan (shall), willan (will), maζan (may), cunnan (can), etc.
1) Formation sculan/willan + Infinitive.
2) 13th – 14th c. –sculan (shall) and willan (will) were completely interchangeable.
3)17th c. – “shall – 1st person, will – 2nd and 3rd person”.
4)In NE there is a tendency to use will + 1st, 2nd and 3rd person without any distinction
Perfect Forms :
1) Formation: habban (with transitive verbs ) /bēon + Participle 2 (this distinction is still left in German).\
2)In ME and NE only the auxiliary habban was left while bēon ceased to be used not to confuse them with the Passive forms
Passive Forms:
1) Formation: bēon/werthen + Participle 2.
2)Werthen died out in late ME.
3) often marked with prepositions “by/with” (to show the doer of the action or the instrument of the action).
Subjunctive-Mood Forms :
1) In ME and NE analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood appeared.
Formation: biden (bid)/leten (let)/neden (need)/sholde (should)/wolde (would) + Infinitive. the modal phrases
The forms with sholde/wolde outnumbered all other forms, became auxiliaries: should – 1st person, would – 2nd, 3rd person.
2)Peculiarities: 1. should/would + Infinitive à simultaneous actions; 2)should/would + Perfect Infinitive à past or preceding actions.
Continuous Forms : Sometimes they were found in OE:
1)Formation: bēon + Participle 1.
2) In ME Continuous forms fell into disuse.
3) In NE these forms reappeared together with a synonymous form: be + on/in +
4) 18th c. – Continuous forms became well-established.
5) 19th c. – Continuous forms in the Passive were accepted as a norm.
Do-Forms
1)In NE “do-periphrasis” was used in the Past and Present of the Indicative Mood.
2)16th c. – “Do” was used in negative, affirmative and interrogative sentences and was freely interchangeable with the simple forms (without “do”),
3) 17th c. – “do” was left only in negative and interrogative sentences to keep the word-order S + P + O. In affirmative sentences “do” acquired an emphatic meaning
14. THE MAIN TREND IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH SYNTACTIC SYSTEM OE SYNTAX
Old English was a synthetic language, – a lot of inflections that showed the relations between the words in a sentence.
Syntactic Connections between the Words: \
1)Agreement – a correspondence between 2 or more words in Gender, Number, Case, Person: a). relation – correspondence between the Subject and the Predicate in Number and Person; b). correlation – agreement of an adjective, a demonstrative pronoun, a possessive pronoun, Participle 1, 2 with noun in Gender, Number, Case.
2) Government – a type of correspondence when one word (mainly a verb, less frequently – an adjective, a pronoun or a numeral) determines the Case of another word.
3) joining – an adj referring to a verb\ adj is connected with it without any formal means.
Word Order : In OE the word order was free as far as there were a lot of inflections that showed the relations between the words in a sentence. Most common word-order patterns were:
1)S + P + O (in non-dependent clauses);
2) S + O + P (when the Object was a pronoun,);+(in dependent clauses,);
3)P + S + O (in questions);(in sentences starting with adverbial modifier,).
In ME and NE, due to the loss of the Cases and, as a result, loss of the inflections the distinction between the Subject and the Object of a sentence was lost. Thus the word order became fixed and direct (S + P + O – The Subject almost always took the first place). Such word order led to the appearance of the formal Subject (formal it, there, e.g. It was winter; There is a book.) that took the place of the Subject if a sentence did not have one and thus preserved the direct word order. Inversion was used only in questions and for emphasis.
Negation:
In OE the common word for negation was ne (IE origin). It was placed before a word that was to be negated. As a result of this position before a word the particle ne often fused with: 1) a verb; 2)a numeral; 3) a pronoun; 4) an adverb. Multiple negation was perfectly normal.
In ME particle ne fell out of use and was replaced completely by the particle naht that later developed into not, stood manly after a verb (V + not).
In NE, during the Normalisation Period, no-double-negation rule appeared that prohibited more than one negative word in a sentence.
Compound and Complex Sentences
The growth of the written forms of English, and the advance of literature in Late ME and Early NE – development of the compound and complex sentence. Differentiation between the two types became more evident, the use oi connectives — more precise.
In ME Many new conjunctions and other connective words appeared during: both...and, a coordinating conjunction, (a borrowed Scandinavian dual adjective bath and the native and; because, (the native English preposition by and a borrowed Latin noun, cause0
The structure of the sentence was further perfected in the 18th and 19th c. It suffices to say that from the 15th to 18th c. the number of coordinating connectives was almost doubled.
OLD ENGLISH VOCABULARY
OE vocabulary had between 23 000 and 24 000 lexical units. In OE there were an extremely low percentage of borrowings from other languages (only 3% as compared to 70% in ModE). Thus OE was a thoroughlyGermanic language.
Native OE words can be subdivided into 3 following layers:
A) Common IE words – the oldest and the largest part of the OE vocabulary: IE- PG-Germanic languages
Semantic fields:
1) family relations (father, mother, daughter, brother, etc. (except aunt, uncle – words of the Germanic origin));
2) parts of human body (eye, nose, heart, arm, etc.);
3) natural phenomena, plants, animals (tree, cow, water, sun, wind, etc.).
Parts of speech:
1)nouns (eye, brother, etc.);
2)verbs (basic activities of man) (to be, can, may, to know, to eat, to stand, to sit, etc.);
3)adjectives (essential qualities) (new, full, red, right, young, long, etc.);
4)pronouns (personal and demonstrative) (I, my, this, that, those, these, etc.);
5)numerals (most of them) (1-10, 100, 1000, etc.); prepositions (for, at, of, to, etc.).
B) Common Germanic words – the part of the vocabulary that was shared by most Germanic languages.
Semantic fields:
1)nature, plants, animals (earth, fox, sheep, sand, etc.);
2)sea (starve, sea, etc.);
3)everyday life (hand, sing, find, make, etc.).
Parts of speech:
1)nouns (horse, rain, ship, bridge, life, hunger, ground, death, winter, evil, etc. );
2)verbs (to like, to drink, to bake, to buy, to find, to fall, to fly, to make, etc.);
3)adjectives (broad, sick, true, dead, deaf, open, clean, bitter, etc.);
4)pronouns (such, self, all, etc.);
5)adverbs (often, again, forward, near, etc.).
C)Specifically Old English words – native words that occur only in English They are very few and are mainly derivatives and compounds (e.g. fisher, understand, woman, etc.).
D) Borrowed words –The words were mainly borrowed from: Latin (around 500 words only) (abbat, anthem, alms, etc. Celtic dialects: common nouns (bin, cross, cradle, etc.) place names and names of waterways: Kent, London, York, etc.; Ouse, Avon, Evan, Thames, Dover – all with the meaning “water”; -comb (“deep valley”) – Duncombe, Winchcombe, etc.; -llan (“church”) – Llandoff, Llanelly, etc.; -pill (“creek”) – Pylle, Huntspill, etc.
Word-formation in E
The words fell into 3 main types:
1)simple words (root-words) – a word consisting of a root-morpheme with no derivational suffixes;
2)derived words – a word consisting of a root-morpheme + 1 or more then one affix;
3)compound words – a word consisting of more then one root-morpheme.
Ways of Word-Formation:
1)sound interchange –(usually was accompanied by suffixation). Sources of sound-interchange:1)ablaut; 2) palatal mutation (verbs from nouns; verbs from adjectives; nouns from adjectives;), 3) consonantal interchanges).
2)word stress – was not frequent; it helped to differentiate between parts of speech and was used together with other means;
3)prefixation – was a productive way (unlike in ModE): 1) IE prefixes (OE un- (negative)); 2) Germanic prefixes (OE mis-, be-, ofer-(over-));
prefixes were widely used with verbs, prefixes often modified lexical meaning; there were grammatical prefixes( was used to build Participle 2 of strong; turned durative verbs into terminative) .
suffixation – was the most productive way, mostly applied to nouns and adjectives, seldom to verbs.
Classification of OE suffixes:
1) Suffixes of agent nouns (-end, -ere, -estre);
2) Suffixes of abstract nouns (-t , -þu, -nes/nis, -unζ/inζ);
3) Adjectival suffixes (-iζ, -isc, -ede, -sum);
4) New suffixes derived from noun root-morphemes (-dōm, -hād, -lāc, -scipe);
5) New suffixes derived from adjective root-morphemes (-lic, -full, -lēas).
Word-Composition: Word-composition – a combination of 2 ore more root-morphemes – was a highly productive way of word-formation. The main patterns were:
1) N + N à N (the most frequent); 2) syntactical compounds à N; 3) Adj + N à Adj (so-called bahuvrihi type); 4) N + Adj à Adj; 5) V + N à N (very rare) .
Дата: 2019-03-05, просмотров: 442.