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Old G languages show differences in comparison with other European L. on 3 on: grammatical, phonetic and lexical levels.

IN PHONETICS:

v accent (word stress) in IE was characterized by musical accent; in PG accent became fixed on the root syllable characteristics of musical accent disappeared in Gmc languages

Indo-European (Non-Germanic)	Proto-Germanic
musical stress (movable, i.e. can appear in any part of a word (root, prefix, suffix));	fixed stress is predominant (1st root syllable)  (can’t move either in form- or word-building and is usually placed on root or prefix);

v Grimm’s and Verner’s laws.

Grimm’s law:. consonant correspondences between indoeuropean and germanic stops (plosives).

There are 3 acts of this law:

1. IE voiceless plosives p, t, k correspond to Gmc voiceless fricatives f, Ө, h. Eg: пламя – flame, три – three, кардио – heart.

2. IE voiced plosives b, d, g, →Gmc voiceless fricatives p, t, k. Eg: болото - pool, kardia – heart, ego – ic (ik).

3. IE aspirated voiced plosives bh, dh, gh →to voiced plosives without aspiration b d g. Eg: bhrāta – brother, rudhira – red, ghostis – guest.

The second consonant shift was Carl Verner’s law (only in Old High German). Voiceless fricatives became voiced if the preceding vowel was unstressed.

p-f > v      septem

t-Ө > đ, d  сто – hund (OE)

k-x > j, g

s-s > z/r    auris – ēare

 

v Palatal Mutation/i-Umlaut

Mutation – a change of one vowel to another one under the influence of a vowel in the following syllable.

Palatal mutation (or i-Umlaut) happened in the 6^th -7^th c. and was shared by all Old Germanic Languages, except Gothic.

Palatal mutation – fronting and raising of vowels under the influence of [i] and [j] in the following syllable (to approach the articulation of these two sounds).  Cases of umlaut are no longer transparent because the suffix was lost.

IN GRAMMAR:

- The development of two major conjunction types of verbs: strong /weak

Strong verbs: changing the root vowel Weak verbs: adding –d (or –t, -ed)

- The development of two new adjective declensions called strong\weak

Strong: indefiniteness Weak: definiteness

- The comparison of adjectives in the GmL follows a parallel pattern of affixes

- The formation of the genitive sing. By the addition of –s or –es

- The second constituent of a declarative main clauses is always a verb

IN LEXIS: Native words

1. In all Gmc languages we find a number of words which are not found in the other IE languages, have no parallels outside the group. Appeared from purely Gmc roots, spheres: nature, sea, home life (sea, house, God, send, drink, broad, own).

2. A number of the basic words are similar in form

 

№3. ENGLISH DIALECTS FROM A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

After the 5^th c. the 3 waves of the Germanic tribes arrived to Britain. The feudal system had led to the isolation of each tribe and political disunity (feudal wars). As a result, this period witnessed a great dialectal diversity. The most important dialects were the dialects of the 4 most powerful kingdoms. Old English Dialects

Dialect	Kentish	West Saxon	Mercian	Northumbrian
Spoken	in Kent, Surrey, the Isle of Wight	along the Thames and the Bristol Channel	between the Thames and the Humber	between the Humber and the 4th
Origin	from the tongues of Jutes/ Frisians	a Saxon dialect	a dialect of north Angles	a dialect of south Angles
Remarks		9th c. – Wessex was the centre of the English culture and politics. West Saxon – the bookish type of language (Alfred the Great – the patron of culture and learning)		8th c. – Northumbria was the centre of the English culture

The most important was the WEST SAXON DIALECT.

In the 8^th – 9^th c. Britain was raided and attacked by the Scandinavians/Vikings. And as soon as the Scandinavian dialects also belonged to the Germanic group, the Danes soon linguistically merged into the local Old English dialects leaving some Scandinavian elements in them.

After the Norman Conquest:

· French became the official language of administration. It was also used as a language of writing and teaching as well as Latin.

· English was the language of common people in the Midlands and in the north of England.

· Celtic Dialects were still used by the Celtic population in the remote areas of the country.

the period of bilingualism (French and English were both used in the country).The Norman and the English drew together in the course of time and intermixed. French lost its popularity due to the fact that it was not the language of the majority and could not be used to communicate with local people. English regained its leading position with time and became accepted as the official language. Thus in the 14^th c. English becomes the language of literature and administration.

Middle English Dialects

OE Dialects	Kentish	West Saxon	Mercian		Northumbrian
ME Dialects	Kentish Dialect	South-Western Dialects

Midland Dialects

Northern Dialects Examples - East Saxon Dialect London Dialect Gloucester Dialect West Midland East Midland Yorkshire Dialect Lancashire Dialect            

· in grammar:

3^rd person singular in Present tense endings: Northern dialects: -es (comes), Southern dialects: -eth (cometh)

!All simplifying changes began in the North!

plural of nouns: Northern dialects: -es (cares), Southern dialects: -en (caren)

forms of personal pronouns; scho: Northern sche: East Midland hue: West Midland hi: South Eastern he: South Western

· in vocabulary: (in terms of loan-words)

In North and East Midland prevailed Scandinavian words

In Southern and West Midland appeared French words first (esp. the area around London), but then they spread northwards and eastwards

The most important dialect in the Middle English period was the LONDON DIALECT. In the 12^th -13^th c. the London Dialect became the literary language and the standard, both in written and spoken form. The reasons why this happened:

· The capital of the country was transferred from Winchester, Wesses, to London

· The East Saxon Dialect (the basis of the London Dialect) became prominent in that period.

· Most authors of the Middle English period used the London Dialect in their works.

The formation of the national E language. The London dialect. The formation of the national literary English covers the Early NE period.

Factors that influenced: The unification of the country and the progress of the culture; Increased foreign contacts influenced the grouth of the vocabulary. \\ The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Latin invention of printing → spreading of written form of English. French was ousted from official spheres and from the sphere of writing.

The Hourishing of literature which makes the second half of the 14cent testifies to the complete reestablishment of English as the language of writing. It was “the age of Chaucer”, the greatest author of this period. “Canterbury tales

Early NE → Renaissance: Shakespeare, Thomas More. The end of the 17^th cent. – books and dictionaries.

In the18th cent the speech of educated people differed from that of common people: 1) pronunciation; 2) choice of words; 3) grammar.

Varieties of Modern English: By the 19^th c. English became completely standardized:

• Written Standard – developed different literary and functional styles
• Spoken Standard – colloquial varieties

Dialectal division (19-20^th c.). The dialects were distinguished by counties or shires. Main headings:

• Southern dialects (East-Southern, West-Southern)
• Midland dialects (Eastern, Central (Midland), Western)
• Northern dialects

!Social dialects: e.g. Cockney

Modern English has a large number of dialects spoken in diverse countries throughout the world. This includes Amer. Austr, Brit (En English, We, Sc), Can, Caribbean , Hiberno, Indian, Pakistani, Nigerian, New Zealand, Philippine, Singaporean, S African English.