Nanoscience and nanotechnology refers to the understanding and control of matter at the atomic, molecular or macromolecular levels, at the length scale of approximately 1 - 100 nanometers. Nanotechnology emerges from the physical, chemical, biological, and engineering sciences, where novel tools and techniques are being developed to probe and manipulate single atoms and molecules. These tools have already enabled a myriad of new discoveries of how the properties of matter are governed by the atomic and molecular arrangements at nanometer dimensions. These discoveries have impacted manufacturing processes of a wide range of materials and devices resulting in substantial improvements of existing technology as well as entirely new technological innovations. For example, nanolithography is a very active area of research used to fabricate nanometer-scale structures, meaning patterns with at least one lateral dimension between the size of an individual atom and approximately 100 nm. Other areas include atomic layer deposition and scanning probe microscopy coupled with corresponding advances in supramolecular chemistry. The ability to control the design properties of materials and devices at the nanoscale is also possible by exploiting strategies that are frequently complemented by bottom up engineering approaches. With the state-of-the-art engineering techniques in materials science today, nanoscience and nanotechnology-based approaches are well poised to revolutionize research in biology and medicine.

Studies that employ nanotechnology techniques and concepts and are focused on biological processes will also give completely new insights into the physical relationships between cellular components and functional irregularities that trigger pathological abnormities. Here, nanotechnology and nanoscience offer a means to control the design and assembly of biomolecular processes relevant in health and disease. For example, the processes involved in energy conversion have been studied for many years through enzymology and structural biology, advances in the development and adaptation of nanotechnology and nanoscience-based approaches have the potential to construct a biomolecular machine that uses biological energy sources such as ATP or electrochemical gradients in novel ways. The successful design and development of such biomolecular machines would demonstrate understanding of a key biological process and create opportunities for interventions based on engineering principles. Ultimately, it will be possible to understand cells from a genetic, biochemical, physiological, and engineering perspective, thus enabling the fabrication of nanoscale modules de novo for therapeutic applications. The nanoscale engineering principles derived could also lead to novel bioinspired systems and architectures, such as biocompatible nanomachines incorporating polymer-based motility inspired by lessons learned from the study of biological models.

Nanotechnology can also be used to design multi-functional and multi-analyte diagnostic systems that not only define early stage changes or progression to a disease state, but also allow the identification of unique biological molecules, chemicals and structures not addressable by current assays. Nascent nanotechnology-based imaging agents for inflammation, metastasis, and angiogenesis are also emerging while nanoscale multifunctional materials, capitalizing on progress in genomics and proteomics, allow targeted delivery of molecular therapies with enhanced efficacy. Significant progress in the engineering of nanoprobes for imaging of cellular events, nanosensors to identify multi-functional analytes create opportunities to observe phenomena at the molecular level and allow researchers to study the function of biomolecules, supramolecular assemblies and organelles of living cells for further manipulation. Despite such emerging technologies, much more progress is still needed to adapt and translate nanoscience and nanotechnology solutions to biomedical innovation and applications.

Exercise 1

Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

 несметное число новых открытий; в размере нанометра; производственный процесс (процесс обработки); технологические достижения; атомный слой; новейшие технологии машиностроения;  вызывать патологическую аномалию; применение в лечебных целях; заново, вновь; многофункциональная система диагностики.

Exercise 2

Complete the following sentences:

1. Nanoscience and nanotechnology refers to the understanding and control of matter at the ….

2. Nanotechnology emerges from the …, …, …, and …. sciences.

3. Nanolithography is a very active area of research used to ….

4. Nanotechnology and nanoscience offer a means to control the design and assembly of …

5. The nanoscale engineering principles derived could also lead to ….

Exercise 3

Answer the questions:

1. What is nanoscience? What is nanotechnology?

2. Nanotechnology emerges from different sciences, doesn’t it?

3. What is nanolithography?

4. What are the main components of nanoscience?

5. What can nanotechnology be used for?

Cloning

The world was stunned by the news in late February 1997 that a British embryologist named Ian Wilmut and his research team had successfully cloned a lamb named Dolly from an adult sheep. Dolly was created by replacing the DNA of one sheep's egg with the DNA of another sheep's udder. The world media was immediately filled with heated discussions about the ethical implications of cloning. Scientists and ethicists have debated the implications of human and non-human cloning extensively when scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland produced Dolly.

No direct conclusions have been drawn, but compelling arguments state that cloning of both human and non-human species results in harmful physical and psychological effects on both groups.

Many people are convinced that the cloning of any species, whether they are human or non-human, is ethically and morally wrong. Cloning of human beings would result in severe psychological effects in the cloned child, and that the cloning of non-human species subjects them to unethical or unmoral treatment for human needs. The possible physical damage that could be done if human cloning became a reality is obvious when one looks at the sheer loss of life that occurred before the birth of Dolly. Less than ten percent of the initial transfers survive to be healthy creatures.

There were 277 trial implants of nuclei. Nineteen of those 277 were deemed healthy while the others were discarded. Five of those nineteen survived, but four of them died within ten days of birth of severe abnormalities. Dolly was the only one to survive. It has lived for seven years. In addition to physical harms, there are worries about the psychological harms on cloned human children. One of those harms is the loss of identity, or sense of uniqueness and individuality.

The cloning of a non-human species subjects them to unethical treatment purely for human needs. What would happen if humans started to use animals as body for growing human organs? Where is the line drawn between human and non human? If a primate was cloned so that it grew human lungs, liver, kidneys, and heart, what would it then be? Would non-human primates, such as a chimpanzee, who carried one or more human genes via transgenic technology be defined as still a chimp, a human, a subhuman, or something else? It could create a world wide catastrophe that no one would be able to stop. That is why the majority considers that the ethical and moral implications of cloning are such that it would be wrong for the human race to support it.

On the other hand, some people think that potential benefits outweigh the potential harms of cloning. Cloning would be probably used by infertile people who now use donated sperm, eggs, or embryos. It may provide a way for completely sterile individuals to reproduce, a valuable basic research of technologies related to reproduction and development.

The dilemma is very complex. The question shakes us all to our very souls. For humans to consider the cloning of one another forces them all to question the very concepts of right and wrong that make them all human. Many countries imposed a ban for human-cloning research.

Exercise 1

Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

Ошеломить, потрясти; пересадка ДНК; горячие споры; убедительный аргумент; перевешивать, быть более важным; бесплодный, неспособный к деторождению; рождать, воспроизводить; потрясти до глубины души; наложить запрет; исследования по клонированию человека.

Exercise 2

Complete the following sentences:

1. Dolly was created by ....

2. When scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland produced Dolly scientists and ethicists have debated ....

3. Many people are convinced that the cloning of any species is ....

4. Cloning of human beings would result in ...

5. Cloning would be probably used by ...

6. Cloning may provide a way for .... to .... .

 Exercise 3

Answer the questions:

1. Why was the world stunned in late February 1997?
2. How was Dolly created?
3. What was the world media immediately filled with?
4. Why are many people convinced that the cloning is ethically and morally wrong?
5. What would cloning of human beings result in?
6. How many trial implants of nuclei were there? How many of them survived?
7. What are the worries about the psychological harms on cloned human children?
8. What could cloning create?
9. What are the benefits of cloning?
10. Is human-cloning research allowed nowadays?
11. What is your opinion about cloning?

Discussion

Do you agree or not? Comment on the following statements.