The General Apparatus of Chemical Laboratory
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Yesterday we were shown the laboratory of general chemistry and were given instructions how to work there. The laboratory is the place where experiments as well as scientific research may be carried out. It usually consists of one large room with a weighing room, a reagent room and sometime, a dark room. The reagent room is used for storing chemicals and apparatus, and contains shelves of reagent bottles. The weighing room is specially constructed so as not to be affected by external disturbances and the balances generally stand on firm stone shelves. The analytical balance, which is kept in a glass case, consists of a beam, which swings on a knife edge, and has two pans suspended, one from each end. The material which is to be weighed is transported to and from the balance room in a dessicator. Chemical laboratory operations deal with gases, liquids and solids, and require a variety of specialized apparatus for their manipulation.

The laboratory is furnished with many long tables or benches, as they are usually called. On each of these benches there are shelves and racks for keeping apparatus, materials, ect.

On the shelves there are many bottles with different chemical substances. Some bottles contain solids, other - liquids. In the racks we see different glass tubes, test-tubes, condensers, flasks of different shapes and sizes, bowles, glass rods crucible, etc. Some crucibles are made of porcelain, others of quartz or platinum.

The apparatus used for carrying out experiments are clamped to ring-stands. The ring-stand consists of a stem having a ring with a copper gauze. Every working place is fitted with a Bunsen burner. The flame of the burner can be regulated by means of a tap. All the burners are connected with the main gas line by a rubber tube. Some­times steam-baths, water-baths and air-baths are used for heating.

The laboratory is also provided with gas and running water. There is a ventilating hood for the escape of disagreeable odours and harmful vapours.

Answer the following questions:

1) Where is scientific research carried out?

2) What is the laboratory furnished with?

3) What is the laboratory provided with?

Текст №2.

 (для студентов химико-технологического факультета)

The Study of Chemistry

Chemistry is a great and complex subject. It has two aspects: descriptive chemistry, the discovery, tabulation and correlation of chemical facts; and theoretical chemistry, the formulation of theories that, upon verification, unify these facts and coat them into a system.

It is necessary to learn a number of the chemical facts of descriptive chemistry by memorizing them. The number of the facts that might be memorized is enormous, and increases rapidly year by year. Memorizing facts will not determine your ability as a student of chemistry, but inability to learn many of these facts might well be interpreted as showing improper application and study on your part.

There are many reasons for studying chemistry. First, there is the cultural reason. A well-educated man or woman needs to understand the material world in which he/she lives as well as to know literature and history, and he/she may find great pleasure in the appreciation of new knowledge as it results from scientific progress.

Moreover, science has become a most important part of the modern world; it is now significant both for international affairs and politics, and for industry and scholarly endeavor. Second, there is the practical or professional reason. Chemists and chemical engineers are demanded in many activities. Although the number of trained chemists and chemical engineers is increasing rapidly, it lags behind the demand. Also, a good understanding of chemistry is of great help in the practical work of nearly every professional: in medicine, engineering, geology, physics, biology, and even in running a house.

Answer the following question:

1) What is chemistry?

2) Why is it necessary to learn many facts of descriptive chemistry?

3) Why is good understanding of chemistry considered to be of great value?

Текст №1.

 (для студентов юридического факультета)

Government.

Government is the mechanism through which the public will is expressed and made effective. Sometimes the public will is voiced by the people directly, through the agency of the initiative and referendum, but more often it is made manifest by action of their elected representative in parliament legislatures and municipal council.

Constitutions, laws and ordinances are the formal records of the public will as expressed by these legislative bodies. Presidents, governors, mayors and other executive officials constitute the channels through which this legislation is put into effect, while the courts uphold their hands by providing the function of enforcement.

Government, accordingly, embraces three broad functions: namely, the making of laws, the administration of laws, and the enforcement of laws. Administrators are vested with the function of putting the laws into operation. The vast majority of government officers are engaged in this work. And when anyone shows a reluctance to obey the laws it is the courts and police that provide the machinery of enforcement. Legislative, executive and judicial, therefore, are the three great branches of government.

Government is providing a growing number of services and engaging in operations of great size and complexity. As the functions of government expand, the role of the administrative branch becomes more important. The quality of administration depends on the character of these who hold the jobs. However it should be realized that administrative organizations and government policies change frequently.

Пояснения к тексту: hold the jobs - выполняют работу initiative - право законодательной инициативы record - официальный документ, протокол making of laws - установление правовых норм, издание законов administration of laws - применение законов enforcement of laws - исполнение законов; проведение законов в жизнь to vest - облекать, наделять правами

Answer the following questions:

1) What is government?

2) What functions does the government embrace?

3) What are the three great branches of government?

Текст № 2.

(для студентов юридического факультета)

Local government .

Local government is often regarded as being the basis of national self government. Local government is essentially a method of getting various services run for the community. Education, medical and hospital services, public transport and other utility services have become matters of government concern. The functions of local government can be broadly divided into two main groups, namely functions of control over the activities of private citizens and the provision of public services.

In the first main group functions of control - is the power to make by laws. All the local councils have this power. By laws are a form of local legislation and (like other laws) are designed to regulate the conduct of members of the public.

The provision of public services (the second main group of local government functions) is not strictly speaking a government function, that is so far as government is to be regarded as the regulation of the conduct of private citizens. The government of civilized countries makes it their concern not only to restrain by guidance or control the activities of their subjects, but also to provide for the public welfare by the establishment of system of education, of sanitation, of roads and other services.

In addition to the series of local councils there are a number of their bodies operating in local areas throughout the country and having functions which are similar to or allied with the functions of these councils.

Пояснения к тексту.

 utility services - коммунальные службы

by - laws - подзаконные акты; постановления

Answer the following questions:

1) What is the basis of national self-government?

2) What groups can the functions of local government be divided into?

3) What is the by-law?

4) In what way do the local governments provide for public welfare?

Текст №1

(для студентов экономического факультета)

What managers do .

In the 1990s, we've come to understand that technical skills are necessary, but insufficient, for succeeding in management. In today's increasingly competitive and demanding workplace, managers can't succeed on their technical skills alone. They've also got to have good people skills.

Managers get things done through other people. They make decisions to allocate resources, and direct the activities of others to attain goals. Managers do their work in an organization. This is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. Based on this definition, manufacturing and service firms are organizations and so are schools, hospitals, churches, military units, retail stores, police departments, and local, state, and federal government agencies. The people who oversee the activities of others and who are responsible for attaining goals in these organizations are their managers (although they're sometimes called administrators, especially in non- profit organizations.)

In the early part of this century, a French industrialist by the name of Henry Fayol wrote that all managers perform five management functions: they plan, organize, command, coordinate and control. Today, we've condensed these down to four: planning, organizing, leading and controlling.

Answer the following questions:

1) What skills must the managers possess?

2) What is an organization?

3) What is a manager?

4) What functions do the managers perform?

Текст №2

 (для студентов экономического факультета)

Management functions .

Managers are responsible for designing an organization's structure. We call this function organizing. It includes the determination of what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.

Every organization contains people and coordinates these people. This is the leading function. When managers motivate subordinates direct the activities of others, select the effective communication channel, or resolve conflicts among members, they are engaging in leading.

The final functions managers perform is controlling. After the goals are set; the plans formulated; the structural arrangements delineated; and the people hired, trained and motivated, there is still the possibility that something may go amiss. To ensure that things are going as they should, management must monitor the organization's performance which must be compared with the previously set goals. If there are any significant deviations, it is management's job to get the organization back on track. This monitoring, comparing and potential correcting is what is meant by the controlling functions.

Answer the following questions:

1) What are managers responsible for?

2) What is the leading function of managers?

3) What is the final function of managers?

Текст №1

(для студентов механического факультета)

Newton's laws of motion for a particle .

It was stated that when an object is subject to a system of forces which has a nonzero resultant, the object will move with accelerated motion. That is, its zero resultant force is applied to it. No statement was made concerning the magnitude or direction of the acceleration produced by the resultant force. The purpose of the present chapter is to state the fundamental principles which govern the exact relationship between force and acceleration. The discussion here will be limited to a single particle, so it will be assumed in every case that the body in question can be treated as if it were a particle.

The study of the quantitative relationships between force and acceleration began in the seventeenth century. The first man to perform significant experiments on the relationship between forces and motion was Galileo, who performed experiments on falling bodies, bodies moving on inclined planets, projectiles and levers. His work and that of such people as Kepler, Descarters and others led Sir Isaac Newton to formulate his famous laws of motion in 1672. These laws may be in the following forms:

First Law. Everybody continues in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by the force applied to it.

Second Law. The rate of change of the momentum of a particle (product of mass and velocity) with respect to time is directly proportional to the resultant force impressed and occurs in the direction of that resultant force. Since we shall consider the mass of the particle to remain constant, the second law can be restated thus: The resultant force acting on a particle is directly proportional to the product of its mass and its acceleration. That is, F = kma , where к = constant.

Answer the following questions:

1) In which case will the object move with an acceleration?

2) When did the study of quantitative relationship between force and acceleration begin?

3) Who was the first to begin the study? (Speak on this experiments).

Текст №2

(для студентов механического факультета)

Newton's laws of motion for a particle .

Third Law. When two bodies interact with each other, either by direct contact or by remote action, the force that the body exerts on the second is equal and opposite to the force that the second exerts on the first. Briefly, we may say that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

It is sometimes confusing for the student, when he first encounters these laws, to realize that force is not required to maintain motion, but only to charge the state of motion. At first this seems contrary to our common experiences. In order to cause an automobile to continue to move at a constant speed, an expenditure of energy is required. Fuel must be supplied to the engine which, in turn, supplies a force to the wheels of the car in order to propel it forward. It seems that in this case force is required to maintain a constant velocity. Upon examining this example more carefully, however, we realize that the force supplied to the wheels is not the only force involved in this moving system. As the car moves through the atmosphere, the air supplies resistance to the car and acts to slow it down as time goes on. When the car is moving at constant speed, the force supplied to the wheels by the engine is exactly in balance with the force of resistance supplied by the air. Actually the car is in equilibrium when it is moving at a uniform speed. In order to change this state of equilibrium it is necessary that zero resultant force be changed to a nonzero resultant. Thus, to accelerate the car, the force supplied to the wheels must be inscreased. To decelerate the car, we reduce the force supplied to thus wheels thus making the air resistance larger than the propelling force. This causes a resultant force in the direction opposite to the motion of the car.

Answer the following questions:

1) Whom were the famous laws of motion formulated by? (Speak about these laws).

2) What is the force required for maintaining or changing the motion?

3) What is necessary for the car to be in equilibrium?

Текст № 1

(для студентов факультета АВТ)

Communication .

Communicating has always been an important human activity. It has been responsible for the development of cultures and their evolution or downfall. Until recently, human communication techniques have been limited to the spoken and written words, sign language and forms of artwork. During the industrial revolution new communication techniques began to evolve. Telegraphs, telephones, radios, photographs, motion pictures and television have all been developed in a relatively brief period of time. Communication equipment and techniques are still being developed and improved. Although different methods of communication have been studied for many years, it has only been recently that process of communicating itself has come under study.

The study of communication process has led to a new discipline, known as "communication theory". The human elements in any communication process are a message source, a message medium and a receiver. This simplest case might be one person talking to another. The person talking is the transmitter or message source, air is the separating message medium, and the listener is the receiver. To communicate, information of some sort must be transferred. "Information" in communication theory is defined as any organized signal. It can be a series of letters, a series if picture scanning elements, etc.

A communication system that does not allow an interchange between the message source and the receiver is said to be a one-way or "simplex" communication set-up. One that does allow an interchanges is a two-way or "duplex" set-up. Noise is an important concept in communication theory. Noise is defined in communication theory as any signal that interferes with the message being sent and is an undesired disturbance in a communication system. Radio static is a form of noise. Dirt on a camera lens is noise also.

Answer the following questions:

1) What are the problems concerned with the process of communicating?

2) What are the human elements in any communication process?

3) What does the word "information" in communication theory relate to?

4) How is noise defined?

 

Текст № 2

(для студентов факультета АВТ)

A Communication System and its problems .

The communication system may be symbolically represented as in Fig. 8. The information source selects a desired message out of a set of possible message. The selected message may consist of written or spoken words, or of pictures, music, etc. The transmitter changes this message into the signal which is sent over the communication channel from the transmitter to the receiver

                      M                    M      RS                     M

 


                                                                        N

 
5


Fig. 8: 1) - information source; 2) - transmitter; 3) - receiver; 5)- destination;

6) - noise source.

M - message; S - signal; RS - received signal; N - noise.

 

In the case of telephony, the channel is a wire, the signal is a varying electrical current on this wire; the transmitter is the set of device (telephone transmitter, etc.) which change the sound pressure of the voice into varying electrical current.

In telegraphy, the transmitter codes written words into sequences of interrupted current of varying lengths (dots, dashes, spaces). In oral speech, the information is the brain, the transmitter is the voice mechanism producing the varying sound pressure (the signal) which is transmitted through the air (the channel).

In the case of radio, the channel is simply space and the signal is the electromagnetic wave which is transmitted.

The receiver is a sort of the inverse transmitter, changing the transmitter signal back into a message, and handing this message on to the destination. In the process of being transmitted it is unfortunately characteristic that certain things are added to the signal which were not intended by the information source. These unwanted additions may be distortions of sound (in telephony, for example) or static (in radio), or errors in transmitted (telegraphy or facsimile), etc. All of these changes in the transmitted signal are called noise.

Information. The word "information", in the mathematical theory of communication, is used in a special sense that must not be confused with its ordinary usage. In particular, information must not be confused with meaning. In fact two messages, one of which is heavily loaded with meaning and the other of which is pure nonsense, can be exactly equivalent, from the present viewpoint, as regards information.

Пояснения к тексту.

written or spoken words - устная или письменная речь

In the case of telephony, the channel is a wire. - В случае телефонии канал-это проводная линия.

In the process of being transmitted it is unfortunately characteristic. -К сожалению, для процесса передачи характерно

is used in a special sense - вкладывает особое понятие

Answer the following questions:

a) How may the communication system be represented?

b) What function does the transmitter perform?

c) What is the channel in the case of telephony?

d) Why is receiver a sort of the inverse transmitter?

e) Why mustn't information be confused with meaning?

Текст №1.

(для студентов факультета биологии и природопользования)

Environmental Protection .

The twentieth century is known to be the century of the scientific and technological progress. The achievements of the mankind in mechanization and automation of industrial processes, in chemical industry and conquering outer space, in the creation of atomic power stations and ships are amazing.

But at the same time, this progress gave birth to a very serious problem — the poisoning of our planet, its land, its air and water. The ecological harmony is disturbed. The seas are filled with industrial and nuclear waste, chemicals and fertilizers. The concentration of smoke in the air is so high in some industrial centres that it is deadly dangerous just to breathe there.

Many species of flora and fauna have disappeared. Many of them are on the brink, of extinction, many have been written down into the "Red Book of Nature". Every hour some kinds of animals and plants die out.

Much is spoken now about acid rains, the greenhouse effect, ozone depletion, caused by tons of harmful substances emitted by industrial enterprises.

Transport is one of the main offenders in poisoning the environment.

Atomic power stations are a great threat to the environment nowadays.

The pollution of the environment is one of the greatest dangers to human life on the earth.

Now industrially developed states cannot ignore the problem of environmental protection. It has become a part of political programmes in many countries.

The Environmental movement has gained support everywhere. Many laws and decisions on this problem have been adopted, many measures have been taken to protect our forests, rivers, lakes and seas.

Though each of us must do everything possible to keep the land, air and water clean, the problem can't be solved by one man or one country. Its solution requires the cooperation of all nations. That's why various international organizations and "green parties" have been organized and more and more people have been involved in them.

The Earth is our home. The world around us is wonderful. Our aim is to make it more beautiful and to preserve it for ourselves and next generations.

Answer the following questions:

d) How is the ecological harmony disturbed?

e) What is a great threat to the environment nowadays?

f) What is being done to preserve our Earth?

Текст №2.

(для студентов факультета биологии и природопользования)



Environmental problems.

For the next decade the world's population may rise by 97 million people a year. Scientists predict that by the year 2025 the population will rise to 8, 5 billion, and by the year 2050 it will double.

Most people find these figures alarming. They are afraid that we will run out of land, energy and minerals.

But optimists are sure that new generations will find a way out. Exploration and new technology open new reserves of minerals like coal and oil. Some scientists think that these reserves will go on forever.

But such confidence is deceiving. If we go on using our natural resources as quickly as nowadays we will use up all the resources of copper, natural gas and oil by the year 2054. On the other hand the problem of what we waste is more important. This includes not only all the resources but our attitude to forests and species of animals and plants we destroy carelessly. Thus, we are facing a pollution crises. We pollute the air we breath. Everybody sees smoke coming out of tall factory chimneys. Everybody can smell the gas from the back of a bus.

In big cities thousands of automobiles and factories may add tons of poison to the atmosphere every day.

Another problem is our sewage systems. Do you know where the sewage from many houses of a big city goes? It pollutes rivers and lakes and may even make them die. Fish can't live in them, and people can't swim in them.

The seas are in danger as they are also polluted. Even the ocean is falling ill. If nothing is done about it, fish and sea animals will disappear.

If we don't stop spoiling the world around us, our life will not be nice.

But there is much that we can do. Factories can clean their smoke. Cars and planes can be done so that they do not pollute the air. The dirty water from the factories and sewage can be made clean again.

It is not necessary to throw away things we do not want or cannot use any more. We can recycle most of them. Old newspapers can become new paper. Old glass and plastic jars and bottles can become new glass and plastic. Old iron can help us to make new cars and refrigerators. We must also learn not to litter.

For a long time people didn't think of the future of the Earth. Children and grownups must learn to take care of it.

Answer the following questions:

a) What do the scientists predict?

b) What must be done to stop spoiling the world around us?

Контрольная работа № 4.

 Грамматический материал к контрольной работе № 4.

 

I. Сложные формы инфинитива (Passive Infinitive, Perfect Infinitive.) Обороты равнозначные придаточным предложениям: объектный инфинитивный оборот (Complex Object), субъектный инфинитивный оборот (Complex Subject).

II. Независимый причастный оборот (The Absolute Participle Construction).

III . Условный предложения.

Контрольно-тренировочные упражнения .

1) Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на то, что инфинитив в функции определения, и особенно объектный и субъектный инфинитивный обороты, в основном соответствуют придаточным предложениям.

Model: Lawyers are known to perform different duties. Известно , что юристы выполняют различные обязанности .

We know the periodic table to be arranged by Mendeleev. Мы знаем, что периодическую таблицу создал Менделеев.

a) Substances are known to be divided into several classes, according to their states, colours and odours.

b) We believe the investigation to be completed in a week.

c)  Ground water is known to contain a great deal of impurities which are not likely to settle. The entire adult population is known to take part in the elections of the organs of state power.

c) This phenomenon does not appear to be studied.

d) A new means of communication is likely to appear in future.

e) We expect the straight line to give the relationship between input and the output signal.

h) He made this reaction run at reduced pressure.

i) The goods are said to have been carefully examined.

 

2) Переведите и перепишите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на различия в переводе зависимого и независимого причастного оборота.

2. The evaporation increases with the temperature, other things being equal.

3. Having obtained the necessary data he stopped his work.

4. The effect is highly depended upon frequency, the lower frequencies showing less noise.

5. Having gone through a long period of training the lawyer became a proficient.

6. The evidence being provided, he undertook the necessary actions.

7. Having examined the laboratory of general chemistry the students were given the instructions how to work there.

8. Having been operated at half their capacity many enterprises have been closed altogether.

h) The investigator being very experienced, the investigation didn't last long.

i) The level of employment being investigated, the results confirmed the recession of economy.

j) Market research having been carried out, the corporation started planning its marketing strategy.

 

3) Перепишите и письменно переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод герундия и герундиальных оборотов.

a) The only way of getting knowledge is to learn.

b) We look forward to improving the economic situation in our country. The young man was accused of violating public order.

1. It is the normal way of doing business.

2. English lawyers made a great effort of creating the organized system of teaching.

3. After adopting this law some remarkable changes in economy took place.

4. They couldn't help solving this problem experimentally.

5. The catabolic process by which a complex food substance is changed into a simpler form without being completely destroyed is known as digestion.

 

4) Переведите следующие сложные предложения, обращая внимание на реальные и нереальные условия.

Образец: 1. If you work hard at your English you will know it well . - Если Вы будете упорно работать над английским языком, Вы будете его хорошо знать.

4. If you worked hard at your English you would know it well. -Если бы Вы работали упорно над английским языком, вы бы знали его хорошо.

5. If you had worked at your English last year you would have passed your exam successfully. - Если бы Вы упорно работали над английским языком в прошлом году, Вы бы успешно сдал экзамен.

1) If a person violates a law, he will be punished.

2) If many of the fields weren't exhausted, further development would become more profitable.

3) If he were at the laboratory now, he would make a practical work on inorganic chemistry.

4) Had this substance been soluble, the particles would not have settled out.

5) If the message had been sent out at a different frequency, one line could have been used to send many messages at the same time.

6) If they don't inform the importer about the documents, he won't receive them on time.

7) If all the mass of a real solid body could be compressed to a single point, the resulting object would be a particle.

8) It would be impossible to ensure the full supply of energy without atomic power stations.

9) If we placed this material in vacuum, its mechanical properties would be changed.

10) It would be impossible to solve many problems without using computers.

Контрольное задание №4.

1) Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте по-английски на вопросы, следующие за текстом.

2) Найдите в тексте и письменно переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых употребляются субъектный и объектный инфинитивные обороты.

3) Замените три сложноподчиненных предложения из текста простым предложением, используя субъектный инфинитивный оборот:

Образец : We expect that the machine will work well. The machine is expected to work well.

1) Найдите в тексте все предложения, в состав которых входит независимый причастный оборот, переведите их.

2) Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых употреблен герундий (простой или сложный, герундиальный оборот).

3) Замените любые реальные предложения из текста маловероятными, относящимся к настоящему или будущему времени, переведите предложения на русский язык.

Образец: If you increase the temperature, you will increase the velocity of molecular motion.

If you increased the temperature, you would increase the velocity of molecular motion.

7.          Выполните письменно упражнение 4 из контрольно-тренировочных упражнений.

8. Переведите текст контрольной работы № 4 письменно. При переводе пользуйтесь англо-русским словарем.

Текст №1

(для студентов химико-технологического факультета)

Astrakhan Gas Processing Complex

Technological process of the Astrakhan gas processing complex and the commodity production receipt involves three production enterprises:

- Production enterprise № 1 for stratumic gas preparation and separation, gas scrubbing from the acidic components, instable condensate processing and commodity gas receipt.

- Production enterprise № 2 for technical sulphur receipt and its shipment to the consumers.

- Production enterprise № 3 for stable condensate processing and motor gasoline, diesel fuel and condensated gas receipt.

The central plant laboratory (CPL) carries out technical control over the whole technical process of the gas and gas condensate processing and also over the technical characteristics and received commodity production quality rates in conformity to the standards.

The production processes automation and mechanization service manages the exploitation and technical operation of control-and-measuring devices, automatic control systems and computers, which are called technological units operators' eyes and ears. Reliable service of labour force work ensures stable raw material cleaning and processing performance and highly-qualitative commodity production.

The CPL labour force and automated service activity have led not only to optimum production results, but also to reduction of production activity influence upon environmental ecology, and prevented the destructive consequences for the Volga delta unique nature. Nature protection and natural resources rational utilization service works in close contact with the above services. The main tasks of this service are: to organize constant control over air pollution and cleaning outfits operation which must guarantee the necessary level of water purification, to carry out prevention, reduction and removal of the unhealthy production influence over natural environment. Due to the labour force efforts polluting exhausts quantity decreased ten times after plant had started production.

Answer the following question:

1) Where is the technological process of gas processing and the commodity production carried out?

2) What are the main functions of the central plant laboratory?

3) What are the main tasks of the nature protection and natural resources utilization service?

Текст № 2

 (для студентов химико-технологического факультета)

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