1. At the beginning of the story the author

· describes/ depicts/  characterizes/ generalizes

· reveals/ exposes/ introduces/ recalls/ dwells on/ explains

· mentions/ touches upon/ points out

· makes a few critical remarks on/ accuses/ blames/ condemns/ mocks at/ ridicules/ praises/ sympathizes with

· gives a summary of/ gives his account of/ makes an excursus into/ digresses from the subject to describe the scenery, to enumerate smth

2. The story/the author begins/opens with a/the description of (introduction of, the mention of, the analysis of, a summary of, the characterization of, (his) opinion of, his recollections of, the enumeration of, the criticism of, some (few) critical remarks about (concerning, etc.), the accusation of, the exposure of, the praises of, the ridicule of, the generalization of, an excursus into...)

3. The scene is laid in…

4. The opening scene shows (reveals)…

5. We first see (meet) him (her, the name of a character) as…

6. Then (after that, further, further on, next) the author passes on to (goes on from…to, goes on to say that, gives a detailed analysis (description, etc.) of, digresses from the subject, depicts, dwells on, touches upon, explains, introduces, mentions, recalls, characterizes, points out, generalizes, makes a few critical remarks on, reveals, exposes, accuses, blames, condemns, mocks at, ridicules, praises, sympathizes with, gives a summary of, gives his account of, makes an excursus into, etc).

7. In conclusion the author depicts (dwells on, touches upon, explains, introduces, mentions, recalls, characterizes, points out, generalizes, makes a few critical remarks on, reveals, exposes, accuses, blames, condemns, mocks at, ridicules, praises, sympathizes with, gives a summary of, gives his account of, makes an excursus into).

8. The author concludes with a (the) description of (introduction of, the mention of, the analysis of, a summary of, the characterization of, (his) opinion of, his recollections of, the enumeration of, the criticism of, some (few) critical remarks about (concerning, etc.), the accusation of, the exposure of, the praises of, the ridicule of, the generalization of, an excursus into...)

9. To finish with, the author describes (depicts, dwells on, touches upon, explains, introduces, mentions, recalls, characterizes, points out, generalizes, makes a few critical remarks on, reveals, exposes, accuses, blames, condemns, mocks at, ridicules, praises, sympathizes with, gives a summary of, gives his account of, makes an excursus into, disgresses from the subject to describe the scenery, to enumerate smth, etc.)

10. At the end of the story the author draws the conclusion that (comes to the conclusion that)…/ At the end of the story the author sums it all up by saying…

11. The concluding words are…

2.4 ПЕРСОНАЖИ ТЕКСТА • THE CHARACTERS OF THE TEXT

Major or central characters are vital to the development and resolution of the conflict. In other words, the plot and resolution of conflict revolves around these characters.

Minor characters serve to complement the major characters and help move the plot events forward.

A dynamic character is a person who changes over time, usually as a result of resolving a central conflict or facing a major crisis. Most dynamic characters tend to be central rather than peripheral characters, because resolving the conflict is the major role of central characters.

A static character is someone who does not change over time; his or her personality does not transform or evolve.

A rounded character is anyone who has a complex personality; he or she is often portrayed as a conflicted and contradictory person.

A flat character is the opposite of a round character. This literary personality is notable for one kind of personality trait or characteristic.

Stock characters are those types of characters who have become conventional or stereotypical through repeated use in particular types of stories. Stock characters are instantly recognizable to readers or audience members (e.g. the Femme Fatale, the cynical but moral Private Eye, the Mad Scientist, the Geeky boy with glasses, and the Faithful Sidekick). Stock characters are normally one-dimensional flat characters, but sometimes stock personalities are deeply conflicted, rounded characters (e.g. the "Hamlet" type).

The protagonist is the central person in a story, and is often referred to as the story's main character. He or she (or they) is faced with a conflict that must be resolved. The protagonist may not always be admirable (e.g. an anti-hero); nevertheless s/he must command involvement on the part of the reader, or better yet, empathy.

The antagonist is the character(s) (or situation) that represents the opposition against which the protagonist must contend. In other words, the antagonist is an obstacle that the protagonist must overcome.

The Anti-Hero is a major character, usually the protagonist, who lacks conventional nobility of mind, and who struggles for values not deemed universally admirable. Duddy, in Mordecai Richler's The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, is a classic anti-hero. He's vulgar, manipulative and self-centered. Nevertheless, Duddy is the center of the story, and we are drawn to the challenges he must overcome and the goals he seeks to achieve.

A foil is any character (usually the antagonist or an important supporting character) whose personal qualities contrast with another character (usually the protagonist). By providing this contrast, we get to know more about the other character.

A symbolic character is any major or minor character whose very existence represents some major idea or aspect of society. For example, in Lord of the Flies, Piggy is a symbol of both the rationality and physical weakness of modern civilization; Jack, on the other hand, symbolizes the violent tendencies (the Id) that William Golding believes is within human nature.

The ways the characters are presented by the author also differ.

Direct presentation (or characterization) - This refers to what the speaker or narrator directly says or thinks about a character. In other words, in a direct characterization, the reader is told what the character is like. When Dickens describes Scrooge like this: "I present him to you: Ebenezer Scrooge....the most tightfisted hand at the grindstone, Scrooge! A squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutching, covetous, old sinner!" - this is very direct characterization!

Indirect presentation (or characterization) - This refers to what the character says or does. The reader then infers what the character is all about. This mimics how we understand people in the real world, since we can't "get inside their heads". In other words, in an indirect characterization, it's the reader who is obliged to figure out what the character is like. And sometimes the reader will get it wrong.

2.5 АВТОР И ЕГО ПЕРСОНАЖИ • THE AUTHOR ’ S ATTITUDES

Whenever you think about how a novel is narrated, you will also think about the attitude the author is taking up toward the characters and events. The author can take up virtually any attitude that he or she wants. The author’s attitude might be revealed directly by means of direct judgements (using epithets and metaphors) or indirectly.

 There is one particular attitude that is very important in narration - irony. Irony occurs when a reader sees that the author is showing that there is a gap between what is thought to be true and what actually is true. Irony is created by different kinds of gaps between what is thought and what really is so.

There are many different kinds of gaps:

 1. A character can say something that the reader sees is mistaken. Here the gap is between the words and the truth.

 2. The gap is between the words and their meaning: a character may say something, the real meaning or implication of which is different from what the character supposes.

 3. The gap is between the intention and the outcome: a character can expect certain events to happen, but the reader can see that things won’t work out as expected.

 4. The gap is between the appearance and the reality: a character can interpret the world in one way, but the reader will see that this interpretation is wrong.

 Some features of irony include:

 • irony is always against someone;

 • irony is often a kind of alliance between the author and the reader;

 • sometimes one irony undercuts another;

 • irony is not always immediately apparent to the reader.

Flash back is a special device when the narrator interrupts the present time and returns to the past.

Inference is a device which enables the writer to be subtle or indirect, leaving the reader to infer or deduce the writer’s meaning.

2.6 СТРУКТУРА ТЕКСТА • THE STRUCTURE OF THE TEXT

The structure of the text (based on Gustav Freyrag)

Exposition is the first stage of the traditional plot structure; it introduces the main characters, provides background information, sets the scene, establishes some potential for further conflict.

Rising action / Complication is the second stage of the plot. The characters engage in conflicts; antagonism is heightened.

The Climax / crisis is the third stage of the plot, the moment of greatest emotional intensity, the turning point.

Falling action/anti-climax is the fourth stage of the plot; it presents the immediate consequences of the crisis.

Resolution / Conclusion / Denouement is the fifth stage of the plot, the unraveling of tensions; most questions get answered; the characters are left to deal with the consequences of conflicts.

More useful vocabulary

Conflict is defined as struggle between or among characters or entities; how the characters deal with the conflict helps the reader interpret or reconcile characters.

Flashback is a special device when the narrator interrupts the present time and returns to the past, the representation of a past event as if it is happening in real time.

Inference is a device which enables the writer to be subtle or indirect, leaving the reader to infer or deduce the writer’s meaning.

Foreshadowing means references to things such as symbols that will have significance later in the plot.

2.7 ЯЗЫК ЛИНГВОСТИЛИСТИЧЕСКОГО АНАЛИЗА •