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Нажимая кнопку "Продолжить", я принимаю политику конфиденциальности

11 мая 2004 г.

Изначально американские тюрьмы призваны были решать одну задачу - карать зло. Однако постепенно отношение к заключенным изменилось - тюрьма перестала быть местом наказания, а стала центром перевоспитания. Однако, заключенных в тюрьмах США стало только больше.

Тюрьмы в США появились задолго до образования независимого государства. Десятки тысяч узников английских тюрем ссылались в североамериканские штаты подальше от цивилизации. Например, в 1716 году в Америку было отправлено несколько сотен шотландских повстанцев. Первоначально, почти на всей территории американских колоний тюрьмы не считались инструментом наказания, они использовались для предварительного заключения арестованных, ожидавших суда, или как долговые тюрьмы. Поскольку пуритане, которые по численности и влиянию превалировали среди населения североамериканских штатов, верили в то, что человек не властен над своей судьбой, они не признавали и исправительной роли наказания.

Как и в Европе, физическое наказание в американских колониях было широко распространено. Американцы использовали колодки на ноги, "позорные столбы", к которым приковывались преступники, клеймение раскаленным железом, телесные наказания, членовредительство -отрезание ушей, ноздрей. Очень часто применялась и смертная казнь. Например, в некоторых колониях (современные штаты Массачусетс, Нью-Йорк) перечень преступлений, которые карались смертью, доходил до 20% от общего списка. В их число входили карманные кражи, конокрадство, грабеж. Пенсильвания значительно отличалась от других колоний. Здесь смертная казнь применялась только в качестве наказания за убийство, а вместо физических наказаний присуждалось тюремное заключение. Такой порядок был установлен под влиянием религиозной секты квакеров и их лидера - основателя штата Пеннсильвания Уильяма Пенна\William Penn (1644-1718). В мировоззрении квакеров особое место занимало раскаяние, признание человеком своих грехов и под воздействием этого возможность изменения им своего жизненного пути.

В 1787 году в Пенсильвании было основано Общество за смягчение страданий в публичных тюрьмах, которое ратовало за замену физических наказаний и смертной казни тюрьмами. В частности, согласно убеждениям членов этого Общества, система одиночных заключений, дает возможность преступнику обдумать свои поступки, раскаяться и исправиться. Это идея активно использовалась при строительстве тюрем. Одна из таких тюрем, в частности, представляла из себя здание, где было множество камер площадью 3 на 3 метра, дворик для физических упражнений. По воскресеньям заключенные могли слушать проповеди тюремного священника, другие контакты с внешним миром, как и друг с другом, исключались.

В начале 19 века в штате Нью-Йорк получила распространение несколько видоизмененная тюремная система - Обурнская\Auburn. Заключенные изолировались друг от друга только в ночное время, а на протяжении дня находились в одном помещении. При этом контакты между заключенными в это время строго пресекались. В то же время активно использовался труд заключенных и применялись жесткие наказания. Обе тюремные системы получили широкое распространение: в США - преимущественно Обурнская система, в Европе - Пенсильванская. Однако в реальности оба метода мало способствовали перевоспитанию преступников, но облегчали для них побег из тюрьмы.

После Гражданской войны (1861-1865) активно строились гигантские тюрьмы, вместившие тысячи заключенных. В Южных штатах заключенные широко использовались для работы на плантациях. В 1870 году недавно образованная Тюремная Ассоциация приняла Декларацию принципов, в которой заявлялся отказ от принципов Обурнской системы и декларировались новые. Система наказания должна основываться не на страдании, а на перевоспитании, заключенные должны быть воспитаны с тем, чтобы стать трудолюбивыми свободными гражданами. Хорошее поведение должно быть вознаграждено различными поощрениями. В случаях, когда приговор предусматривает такую возможность, заключенный своим усердным трудом и примерным поведением может заработать досрочное освобождение. Заключенные должны осознать, что они могут изменить свою жизнь.

Многие из идей Декларации были использованы в дальнейшем для реформирования исправительной системы. В частности, идея перевоспитания достигла своего расцвета в 1930-50 годы, когда практика перевоспитания широко распространилась в тюрьмах США. Специально подготовленный штат диагностировал причины совершения преступления, предписывал "курс лечения" и устанавливал сроки "выздоровления". Методами перевоспитания становились групповая терапия, консультации, коррекция поведения. С начала 1960-х годов в программах реабилитации заключенных начала активно участвовать общественность.

Сегодня более двух миллионов человек находятся в тюрьмах США. Они составляют более 1% всего взрослого населения страны - это самый высокий показатель в мире. Дополнительно к этому, 4 млн. американцев находятся на испытательном сроке и 750 тыс. освобождены условно. Это своеобразный рекорд: на протяжении всей истории страны заключенные составляли приблизительно 0.1% от числа взрослого населения.

Sidney Sheldon Tell me your dreams

Text Interpretation

Ashley Patterson's arraignment took place in the Superior Court of the County of Santa Clara on North First Street in San Jose. The legal wrangling about jurisdiction had gone on for weeks. It had been complicated, because the murders had taken place in two countries and two different states. A meeting was held in San Francisco, attended by Officer Guy Pontaine from the Quebec Police Department, Sheriff Dowling from Santa Clara County, Detective Eagan from Bedford, Pennsylvania, Captain Rudford from the San Francisco Police Department, and Roger Toland, the chief of police in San Jose.

Fontaine said, "We would like to try her in Quebec because we have absolute evidence of her guilt. There's no way she can win a trial there."

Detective Eagan said, "For that matter, so do we, Officer Fontaine. Jim Cleary's was the first murder she committed, and I think that should take precedence over the others."

Captain Rudford of the San Francisco police said, "Gentlemen, there's no doubt that we can all prove her guilt. But three of these murders took place in California, and she should be tried here for all of them. That gives us a much stronger case."

"I agree," Sheriff Dowling said. "And two of them took place in Santa Clara County, so this is where the jurisdiction should lie."

They spent the next two hours arguing the merits of their positions, and in the end, it was decided that the trial for the murders of Dennis Tibble, Richard Melton and deputy Sam Blake would be held at the Hall of Justice in San Jose. They agreed that the murders in Bedford and Quebec would be put on hold.

On the day of arraignment, David stood at Ashley's side.

The judge on the bench said, "How do you plead?"

"Not guilty and not guilty by reason of insanity."

The judge nodded. "Very well."

"Your Honor, we're requesting bail at this time."

The attorney from the prosecutor's office jumped in. "Your Honor, we strongly object. The defendant is accused of three savage murders and faces the death penalty. If she were given the opportunity, she would flee the country."

"That's not true," David said. "There's no—"

The judge interrupted. "I've reviewed the file and the prosecutor's affidavit in support of no bail. Bail denied. This case is assigned to Judge Williams for all purposes. The defendant will be held in custody at the Santa Clara County Jail until trial."

David sighed. "Yes, Your Honor." He turned to Ashley.

"Don't worry. Everything's going to work out. Remember... you're not guilty."

When David returned to the office. Sandra said, "Have you seen the headlines? The tabloids are calling Ashley 'the Butcher Bitch.' The story is all over television."

"We knew this was going to be rough," David said. "And this is only the beginning. Let's go to work."

The trial was eight weeks away.

The next eight weeks were filled with feverish activity. David and Sandra worked all day and far into the night, digging up transcripts of trials of defendants with multiple personality disorder. There were dozens of cases. The various defendants had been tried for murder, rape, robbery, drug dealing, arson.... Some had been convicted, some had been acquitted.

"We're going to get Ashley acquitted," David told Sandra.

Sandra gathered the names of prospective witnesses and telephoned them.

"Dr. Nakamoto, I'm working with David Singer. I believe you testified in The State of Oregon Versus Bo-hannan. Mr. Singer is representing Ashley Patterson.... Oh, you did? Yes. Well, we would like you to come to San Jose and testify in her behalf...."

"Dr. Booth, I'm calling from David Singer's office. He's defending Ashley Patterson. You testified in the Dickerson case. We're interested in your expert testimony.... We would like you to come to San Jose and testify for Miss Patterson. We need your expertise...."

"Dr. Jameson, this is Sandra Singer. We need you to come to..."

And so it went, from morning until midnight. Finally, a list of a dozen witnesses was compiled. David looked at it and said, "It's pretty impressive. Doctors, a dean... heads of law schools." He looked up at Sandra and smiled. "I think we're in good shape."

From time to time, Jesse Quiller came into the office David was using. "How are you getting along?" he asked. "Anything can do to help?"

"I'm fine."

Quiller looked around the office. "Do you have everything you need?"

David smiled. "Everything, including my best friend."

On a Monday morning, David received a package from the prosecutor's office listing the state's discovery. As David read it, his spirits sank.

Sandra was watching him, concerned. "What is it?"

"Look at this. He's bringing in a lot of heavyweight medical experts to testify against MPD."

"How are you going to handle that?" Sandra asked.

"We're going to admit that Ashley was at the scenes when the murders took place, but that the murders were actually committed by an alter ego." Can I persuade a jury to believe that?

* * *

Five days before the trial was to begin, David received a telephone call saying that Judge Williams wanted to meet with him.

David walked into Jesse Quiller's office. "Jesse, what can you tell me about Judge Williams?"

Jesse leaned back in his chair and laced his fingers behind his head. "Tessa Williams... Were you ever a Boy Scout, David?"

"Yes..."

"Do you remember the Boy Scout motto,—'be prepared'?"

"Sure."

"When you walk into Tessa Williams's courtroom, be prepared. She's brilliant. She came up the hard way. Her folks were Mississippi sharecroppers. She went through college on a scholarship, and the people in her hometown were so proud of her, they raised the money to put her through law school. There's a rumor that she turned down a big appointment in Washington because she likes it where she is. She's a legend."

"Interesting," David said.

"The trial is going to be in Santa Clara County?"

"Yes."

"Then you'll have my old friend Mickey Brennan prosecuting."

"Tell me about him."

"He's a feisty Irishman, tough on the inside, tough on the outside. Brennan comes from a long line of over-achievers. His father runs a huge publishing business; his mother's a doctor; his sister is a college professor. Brennan was a football star in his college days, and he was at the top of his law class." He leaned forward. "He's good, David. Be careful. His trick is to disarm witnesses and then move in for the kill. He likes to blind-side them.... Why does Judge Williams want to see you?"

"I have no idea. The call just said she wants to discuss the Patterson case with me."

Jesse Quiller frowned. "That's unusual. When are you meeting with her?"

"Wednesday morning."

"Watch your back."

"Thanks, Jesse. I will."

The superior courthouse in Santa Clara County is a white, four-story building on North First Street. Directly inside the courthouse entrance is a desk manned by a uniformed guard; there is a metal detector, a railing alongside and an elevator. There are seven courtrooms m the building, each one presided over by a judge and staff.

At ten o'clock Wednesday morning, David Singer was ushered into the chambers of Judge Tessa Williams, in the room with her was Mickey Brennan. The leading prosecutor from the district attorney's office was in his fifties, a short, burly man with a slight brogue. Tessa Williams was in her late forties, a slim, attractive African-American woman with a crisp, authoritative manner.

"Good morning, Mr. Singer. I'm Judge Williams. This is Mr. Brennan."

The two men shook hands.

"Sit down, Mr. Singer. I want to talk about the Patterson case. According to the records, you've filed a plea of not guilty and not guilty by reason of insanity?"

"Yes, Your Honor."

Judge Williams said, "I brought you two together because think we can save a lot of time and save the state a great deal of expense. I'm usually against plea bargaining, but in this case, think it's justified."

David was listening, puzzled.

The judge turned to Brennan. "I've read the preliminary hearing transcript, and see no reason for this case to go to trial. I'd like the state to waive the death penalty and accept a guilty plea with no chance of parole."

David said, "Wait a minute. That's out of the question!"

They both turned to look at him. "Mr. Singer—"

"My client is not guilty. Ashley Patterson passed a lie detector test that proves—"

"That doesn't prove anything, and as you well know it's not admissible in court. Because of all the publicity, this is going to be a long and messy trial."

"I'm sure that—"

"I've been practicing law a long time, Mr. Singer. I've heard the whole basket of legal pleas. I've heard pleas of self-defense—that's an acceptable plea; murder by reason of temporary insanity—that's a reasonable plea; diminished capacity.... But I'll tell you what don't believe in, Counselor. 'Not guilty because didn't commit the crime, my alter ego did it.' To use a term you might not find in Blackstone, that's 'bullshit.' Your client either committed the crimes or she didn't. If you change your plea to guilty, we can save a lot of—"

"No, Your Honor, won't."

Judge Williams studied David a moment. "You're very stubborn. A lot of people find that an admirable quality." She leaned forward in her chair. "I don't."

"Your Honor—"

"You're forcing us into a trial that's going to last at least three months—maybe longer."

Brennan nodded. "I agree."

"I'm sorry that you feel—"

"Mr. Singer, I'm here to do you a favor. If we try your client, she's going to die."

"Hold on! You're prejudging this case without—"

"Prejudging it? Have you seen the evidence?"

"Yes, I—"

"For God's sake. Counselor, Ashley Patterson's DNA and fingerprints are at every crime scene. I've never seen a more clear-cut case of guilt. If you insist on going ahead with this, it could turn into a circus. Well, I'm not going to let that happen. I don't like circuses in my court. Let's dispose of this case here and now. I'm going to ask you once more, will you plead your client to life without parole?"

David said stubbornly, "No."

She was glaring at him. "Right. I'll see you next week."

He had made an enemy.

IMAGERY

Simile (Vergleich): a kind of comparison in which two things are com­pared be­cause they have something in common though they are in all other respects different. The imagina­tive compa­rison is explicitly (ausdrücklich) made with the help of like or as.

She walks like an angel. / I wandered lonely as a cloud. (Wordsworth)

This simile suggests/implies/illustrates that ...

Metaphor (Metapher): a comparison between two things which are basically quite different without using the words like or as. While a simile only says that one thing is like another, a metaphor says that one thing is another.

All the world’s a stage / And all the men and women merely players ... (Shakespeare)

Life’s but a walking shadow ... (Shakespeare Macbeth)

‘Night’ is often used as a metaphor for ‘evil’. He uses ‘night’ as a metaphorical [--`---] equivalent of ‘evil’. 

Personification (Verkörperung): a kind of metaphor in which animals, plants, inanimate (leblos, unbelebt) objects or ab­stract ideas are represented as if they were human beings and possessed human qualities.

Justice is blind. Necessity is the mother of invention (Not macht erfinderisch).

Eros is a personification of love. Eros personifies [-`---] love.

Symbol (Symbol): something concrete that stands for something ab­stract or invisible.

The Cross is the symbol of Christianity. The dove (Taube) symbolizes peace/is symbolic of peace.

SOUND

Alliteration (Alliteration): the repetition of a consonant sound at the beginning of neighbouring words.

Oh dear daddy of death dance ...

Words alliterate (with each other)/form an alliteration.

Assonance (Assonanz): the repetition of vowel sounds within stressed syllables of neighbouring words.

fertile - birth

Con­so­nance (Konsonanz): the repetition of consonant sounds especially at the end of neighbouring words.

strength - earth - birth

Onomatopoeia (Lautmalerei): the use of words which imitate the sound they refer to. adj. onomatopoeic

the stuttering (stottern) rifles’ rapid rattle / The cuckoo whizzed past the buzzing bees.

Rhyme (Reim): the use of words which end with the same sounds, usually at the end of lines.

Tiger! Tiger! burning bright / In the forests of the night.

Internal rhyme: rhyme within a line.

letters of joy from girl and boy

Impure rhyme: inaccurate (ungenau) repetition of sounds.

hill - full; man - mean; sky - fine; seem - weak

Eye-rhyme: rhyme that does not depend on sound but on spelling.

flow - how, beat - great, over - discover.

In older poems one has to consider that words were (maybe) pronounced differently from today.

STRUCTURE

Anaphora (Anapher): the repetition of a word or several words at the beginning of succes­sive (aufeinander folgend) lines, sentences or paragraphs. Anaphora is a form of parallelism.

In every cry of every man / In every infant’s cry of fear / In every voice, in every ban. (Blake London)

Chiasmus (Chiasmus, Kreuzstellung): a reversal in the order of words so that the sec­ond half of a sentence balances the first half in inverted (umgekehrt) word order.

Love’s fire heats water, water cools not love. (Shakespeare)

Climax (Steigerung, Höhepunkt, Klimax): a figure of speech in which a series of words or expressions rises step by step, beginning with the least important and ending with the most impor­tant. The term may also be used to refer only to the last item in the series.

Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed (schlucken), and some few to be chewed (kauen) and digested (verdauen).

The author brings a sentence to a climax. A paragraph leads to/rea­ches a climax.

Argu­ments are arranged in climactic order.

Anticlimax (Antiklimax): the sudden fall from an idea of impor­tance or dignity (Würde) to some­thing unimportant or ridi­culous in comparison, especially at the end of a series.

The bomb completely destroyed the cathedral, several dozen hou­ses and my dustbin.

Enumeration (Aufzählung): the listing of words or phrases. It can stress a certain aspect e.g. by giving a number of similar or sy­n­onymous adjectives to describe something.

Today many workers find their labor mechanical, boring, imprisoning, stultifying (lähmend), repe­titive, dreary and heartbreaking.

Inversion (Inversion): a change of the ususal word order (subject-verb-object).

A lady with a dulcimer (Art Hackbrett) / In a vision once I saw.

Parallelism (Parallelismus): the deliberate (absichtlich) repetition of similar or identical words, phrases or constructions in neighbouring lines, sentences or paragraphs.

MISCELLANEOUS

Allusion (Anspielung): an indirect reference to people or things outside the text in which it occurs, without mentioning them explicitly (explizit, ausdrücklich).

The title of Ernest Hemingway’s novel For Whom The Bell Tolls  is an allusion to/alludes to a poem by John Donne.

Ambiguity (Ambiguität, Zwei-/Mehrdeutigkeit): the deliberate use of a word or phrase that has two or more relevant meanings. Ambiguity is the basis for a lot of wordplay.

The writer uses this word in a deliberately ambiguous way.

Euphemism (Euphemismus): hiding the real nature of something unpleasant by using a mild or indirect term for it.

“He has passed away.” instead of “He has died.” / “the underprivileged” instead of “the poor”

The author uses a euphemistic word instead of a harsh (hart, schroff) one.

Understatement (Untertreibung): the deliberate presentation of something as being much less important, valuable etc. than it really is.

“These figures are a bit disappointing” instead of “… are disastrous (katastrophal).”

“He was quite upset” instead of “He went into a terrible rage”.

Hyperbole (Hyperbel): obvious and deliberate (absichtlich) exaggeration. Its pur­pose is to emphasize something or to pro­duce a humorous effect.

I loved Ophelia: forty thousand brothers / Could not, with all their quantity of love / Make up my sum.

The text is full of/contains (enthalten) a lot of hyperboles/gross (grobe) exaggera­tions.

The author gives a hyperbolical/an exaggerated description of ...

Irony (Ironie): saying the opposite of what you actually mean. Do not use “ironic” in the vague sense of “funny/humorous”.

Teacher: “You are absolutely the best class I’ve ever had.” Actual meaning: “the worst class”

A text contains ironic state­ments/allusions.

The reader is expected to grasp (erfassen)/be­come aware of the irony of ...

Sarcasm (Sarkasmus): bitter and aggressive humour used to express mockery (Spott, Hohn) or dis­approval (Ablehnung).

The text is full of sarcastic [-`--] remarks.

Satire (Satire): a kind of text which critici­zes certain con­ditions, events or people by making them appear ridiculous. Satirical texts often make use of exaggeration, irony and sar­casm.

Jonathan Swift was a satirist. He satirized (satirisch darstellen) the society of his time.

Paradox (Paradoxon): a statement that seems to be self-contradictory (wider­sprüchlich) or opposed to common sense. On closer examina­tion it mostly reveals some truth.

The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth) / It is awfully hard work doing nothing. (Wilde)

A statement can be pa­ra­doxical. An author can express something paradoxically.

Oxymoron (Oxymoron): a combination of openly contradictory words and meanings.

“O hateful love! O loving hate!” / “I burn and freeze like ice.” (Shakespeare Romeo and Juliet)

Pun (Wortspiel): a play on words that have a similar sound but different mean­ings. The English language seems to lend itself to (sich eignen für) wordplay more than most lan­guages because of its many homophones (Homo­phone), i.e. words with the same sound as another. Homophones lose their am­biguity as soon as they are written.

At the drunkard’s fu­neral, four of his friends carried the bier. (bier Totenbahre vs. beer Bier)

A word with the same form as another but with a different meaning is called homonym (Homonym):

“Is life worth living?” – “It depends on the liver” (liver = sb. who lives vs. liver Leber)

An author can make a funny/subtle (subtil) pun on a word to attract the reader’s attention.

He puns on a word for humorous purposes.

Rhetorical question (rhetorische Frage): a question to which the answer is obvious and there­fore not expected. In reality rhetorical questions are a kind of statement.

Don’t we all love peace and hate war? / Shouldn’t we try to be friendlier towards each other?

Начало формы