A theory of temperament is presented which draws upon the tradition of neo-Pavlovian typology of the nervous system. Special attention is paid to temperament as one of the regulators of the relationship between humanity and environment, when the environment is treated as a source of stimulation. The main focus is upon temperamental characteristics associated with behaviour at the energetics level. This comprises two dimensions: reactivity and activity. A theoretical analysis of the two traits is conducted and their relationship with human behaviour is elaborated. A number of studies are discussed, illustrating the role of reactivity as one of the regulators of the individual's style of action and as a partner in the determination of preferences for situations and for behaviours of a given stimulatory potential. Finally, the paper provides a number of data exemplifying essential relations between temperament and personality. The interdependencies between both these phenomena are discussed in the light of the assumption that temperament should be regarded as a consequence of biological evolution and personality as a product of the social environment.

35. Reveal basic categories of psychological science proposed by M.G. Yaroshevsky (action, image, motive, personality, psycho-social relation). Like language, science has its own subtly arranged apparatus, its "organ", in the forms of which the content of the studied reality is comprehended.The system of these forms, not from the outside attached to the content, but from within its organizing, is called a categorical apparatus.According to philosophical tradition, the categories refer to the most General, limiting concepts (such as "quantity", "quality", "form", "content", etc.). They are valid for any manifestations, mental activity, on whatever objects it is concentrated.When the object of this activity becomes a separate fragment of being (in our case, psychic reality), the apparatus of philosophical categories, continuing to determine the movement of research thought, is insufficient to master this particular fragment, to turn it into a subject of scientific knowledge. This subject is built through the functioning of the system of special scientific categories. It is developing historically that allows us to comprehend the studied phenomenon not only globally (under the categories of quantity and quality, possibility and reality, etc.), but also in its specific characteristics that distinguish a certain area of knowledge from all others.In the theoretical "knowledge" plan, this area is presented in a set of interrelated concepts, enshrined in terms, the signs of which indicate recognized by science as essential for this category of phenomena (for example, in psychology, there are signs by which thinking is separated from perception, emotional processes - from volitional, value orientations of the individual - from its abilities, etc.). In the dictionary of terms and in the variety of their combinations before us extends the mastered science "knowledge" field - in its main dividing lines, components and connections between them.

36. Describe basic features of human activity and its psychological content.The statements that follow comprise an internally consistent definition and characterization of A HUMAN ACTIVITY SYSTEM -is an assembly of people and other resources organized into a whole in order to accomplish a purpose. The people in the system are affected by being in the system, and by their participation in the system they affect the system. People in the system select and carry out activities -- individually and collectively -- that will enable them to attain a collectively identified purpose.maintains sets of relations --- sustained through time -- among those who are in the system. The maintenance of these relations is of primary importance. The process by which these relationships are maintained is the system's regulation -- the rules of the game -- and the limits within which these rules can be sustained are the conditions of the systems stability through time,. It is here where commitment (to shared purpose) and motivation (to carry out activities) play such an important role,

Is open to and interacts with the environment; depends on it and contributes to it. The nature of its relationship with the environment is mutual interdependence. This interdependence imposes constraints and expectations on both the system and its environment responsively. The environment is expected to provide the resources and support that are required by the system.

acts as a whole toward itself and by itself -- by its internal relations and internal integration -- by which it can also sustain itself. Thus, while we view the system as a whole, at the same time we consider it as part of and embedded in its environment.

Systemic insight emerges from "application" of the dynamics of purpose seeking and purpose-fulfilling relational interaction and integration of the people as a system and its environment.

37. Denote needs, motives and goals as preconditions of human activity. Motivation can also be described as the driving force within individuals that impels them to action. As shown in the figure 3.2, this driving force is the result of tension, which in turn is because of unfulfilled needs. To reduce tension, every individual strives for fulfilling their needs. This basi­cally, depends on each individual how they fulfill their needs i.e. individual thinking and learning (experiences). Therefore, marketers try to influence the consumer’s cognitive processes.

Needs:Every individual has needs, they are innate and acquired. Innate needs are also called physiological needs or primary needs which include food, water, air, shelter or sex, etc. Acquired needs are those needs that we learn from our surroundings / environment or culture. These may include need for power, for affection, for prestige, etc. These are psychological in nature; therefore they are also called as secondary needs.Goals:Goals are the end result of motivated behaviour. As in the above diagram every individual’s behaviour is goal-oriented.

38. Distinguish actions, operations, abilities and skills in the structure of human activity. Activity theory is an umbrella term for a line of eclectic social sciences theories and research with its roots in the Soviet psychological activity theory pioneered by Lev Vygotsky , Alexei Leont'ev and Sergei Rubinstein. These scholars sought to understand human activities as systemic and socially situated phenomena and to go beyond paradigms of reflexology (the teaching of Vladimir Bekhterev and his followers) and classical conditioning (the teaching of Ivan Pavlov and his school), psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It became one of the major psychological approaches in the former USSR, being widely used in both theoretical and applied psychology, and in education, professional training, ergonomics, social psychology and work psychology. Activity theory is more of a descriptive meta-theory or framework than a predictive theory. It considers an entire work/activity system (including teams, organizations, etc.) beyond just one actor or user. It accounts for environment, history of the person, culture, role of the artifact, motivations, and complexity of real-life activity. The unit of analysis in AT is the concept of object-oriented, collective and culturally mediated human activity, or activity system. This system includes the object (or objective), subject, mediating artifacts (signs and tools), rules, community and division of labor. The motive for the activity in AT is created through the tensions and contradictions within the elements of the system.