Classroom management is a multi-faceted concept that includes the organization of the physical environment, Custodialism and humanism are measured by the Puthe establishment of rules and routines, the development of pil Control Ideology form, comprised of 20 statements, each effective relationship 3, and the prevention of and response followed by a Likert scale ranging from 'strongly agree' (five to misbehavior. Some researchers suggest that it is helpful points) to 'strongly disagree' (one point). A high score signito view classroom management beliefs and practices on a fies a custodial attitude toward pupil control and a low score continuum from teacher-centered to student-centered. For indicates a humanistic attitude toward control of pupils. example, Willower (1975) found that educators vary along a Similarly, Wolfgang (2001) identifies three philosophi- continuum of beliefs about the way children learn to behave cal "faces" of discipline, which include relationship-listenand conceptualized this as one's pupil-control ideology. At ing, confronting-contracting and rules-consequences. These one end of the continuum is the custodial (teacher-centered) three philosophical "faces" of discipline may be placed on educator and at the other end is the humanistic (student-cen- a power continuum from minimum (student-centered) to tered) educator. The extremes in the continuum of beliefs maximum (teacher-centered) use of power by the teacher. are described in the fcllowing way: Finally, Rogers and Freiberg (1994) consider what classroom management would look like in teacher-centered and a) The educator with a custodial orientation is likely person-centered classrooms (see Table 1). It is important Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 43.1 2008 35 to note that although teacher-centered and student-centered classroom management can be seen as opposite ends of a continuum, it is highly unlikely that any teacher implements a teacher-centered or student-centered approach to classroom management in its purest form. Nonetheless, these lenses are useful ways of examining the dominant orientation of a classroom. In teacher-centered classrooms, control is of primary importance and "authority is transmitted hierarchically" (Dollard & Christensen, 1996, p. 3), meaning the teacher exerts control over the students. Critics ofteacher-centeredness argue that in these classrooms, compliance is valued over initiative and passive learners over active learners (Freiberg, 1999). To help teachers maintain control over students, instructional methods that promote a focus on the teacher are frequently used, such as lectures, guided discussions, demonstrations and "cookbook" labs (Edwards, 2004). These forms of instruction lend themselves to having the teacher stand in the front of the classroom while all students work on the same task. Similarly, the physical design of the classroom often promotes a focus on the teacher and limits student activity that disrupts that focus. In other words, rooms are often organized so that desks face toward the primary focal point, the teacher (Boostrom, 1991). In addition, teachers exert their control through a system of clearly defined rules, routines and punishments that are mandated rather than developed with the students (Freiberg, 1999). Generally, teachers identify the rules necessary for an orderly classroom and time is set aside for the teaching of these rules during the first several days of school. When students exhibit undesirable behavior, advocates of a teacher-centered approach often rely on punishments, such as reprimands, frowns, time outs and loss of special privileges (Lovitt, 1990). Finally, in teacher-centered classrooms, teachers may rely on extrinsic motivation to influence student behavior. Here, completion of a task is seen as a prerequisite for obtaining something desirable (Chance, 1993) such as social rewards (e.g. praise), activity rewards (e.g. free time, computer time) and tangible rewards (e.g. candy and stickers). In contrast, a constructivist teacher is interested primarily in helping the child engage problems and issues, search below the surface, try out various possible solutions or explanations and finally construct his or her own meaning (Ryan & Cooper, 2001). In these classrooms, teaching methods or strategies include reflective thinking, inquiry, exploratory discussions, role-playing, demonstrations, projects and simulation games (Edwards, 2004). What kinds of management strategies support the instructional strategies and goals of a student-centered classroom? Since one of the primary goals is to empower students and strengthen their sense of responsibility, proponents of student-centered classroom management suggest relinquishing hierarchical power structures and sharing control, which they claim will result in a more manageable classroom (Nichols, 1992). One way teachers may share their control with their students is to elicit student participation when generating the classroom rules. Another suggestion is to share responsibility by having students complete classroom tasks such as taking attendance or lunch count, updating the calendar or caring for a class pet. Similarly, students can be given autonomy to decide when to use the bathroom, sharpen pencils and throw out garbage.