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Unit1. OUR UNIVERSITY

Oral topic

OUR UNIVERSITY

Brest State University named after Alexander Pushkindates back from 1945 when on the 15th of March the regional government decided to open the Teacher's Training Institute in Brest. In October of the same year the first 14 students entered the building in Soviet street where the hospital had been housed before.In 1995 it became a university. Its full name is Brest State University.

The University occupies several academic buildings: an old building at the crossing of Savetskaya and Mickevich Streets, the Sports Complex with gymnasiums, a swimming pool, several lecture halls and tutorial rooms, and a seven-storied building in Kasmanautau Boulevard with a canteen, a library, reading halls, laboratories, lecture halls and subject rooms. At the disposal of students there are four hostels, a winter garden, a garden of successive blossoming, and an agricultural and biological station. The University has three museums: of biology, of geology, and of physical culture and sport. The library and reading rooms of the University contain more that 700,000 books.

 There are 11 faculties at the University: Language and Literature, Foreign Languages, Psychology and Pedagogics, Social Pedagogics, Geography, Biology, Physics-Mathematics, Physical Education and Sports, History, Law, and Pre-University Preparation. Students are educated in more than 20specialties.

Teaching is maintained at a high level. About 500 professors, associate professors and tutors teach students at the University.

The course of study lasts four-five years. Each year consists of two terms (autumn and spring) with examination periods at the end of each term. The term is divided between theoretical and practical work: students have a few weeks of lectures followed by seminars. When students have seminars they spend a lot of time in the reading room revising the material, fortunately the Internet helps now a lot.

The University has its own postgraduate course, opened in 1991. At present 25 postgraduate students have been carrying out research work in 15 specialties under the supervision of distinguished Masters and Doctors of Sciences.

At Brest State University a great number of students are engaged in various forms of research work under the supervision of qualified specialists. This work contributes to the solution of current problems and helps them learn more about their future work and the sciences j they study at the University. They hold scientific conferences at the University, take part in republican ones and publish their scientific articles. Scientific work develops a spirit of independence in the students, helps them to understand the requirements of national economy, to design different devices, to write term-papers and diploma theses, and most important, to see the results of their labor being put into practice.

 

Exercise 1. Match the words and their definitions

1. University	a. lodgings for students;
2. Thesis	b. an educational institution offering undergraduate and graduate degrees in a variety of academic areas;
3. Student	c. a faculty member of the highest rank in a university;
4. Hostel	d. a scientific or scholarly investigation;
5. Research	e. a speech on a specific subject, delivered to an audience for information or instruction;
6. Lecture	f. a paper written by a student that develops an idea or point of view;
7. Professor	g. a person who studies at a university.

Unit 2. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

Oral topic

 

 

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

 

Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. The word psychology comes from two Greek words: "Psyche" mean­ing "mind" or "soul" and "Logos" meaning "study of". Therefore, psy­chology means "study of the mind". There are many modern definitions of the term. One of them belongs to Atkinson, who defined psychology as "the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes". Psychologists observe and record how people and other animals relate to one another and to the environment. They look for patterns that will help them understand and predict behavior, and they use scientific methods to test their ideas. Through such studies, psychologists have learned much that can help people fulfill their potential as human beings and increase understanding between individuals, groups, nations, and cultures.

Psychology is a broad field that explores a variety of questions about thoughts, feelings, and actions. Psychologists ask such questions as: "How do we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel? What enables us to learn, think, and remember, and why do we forget? What activities distinguish human beings from other animals? What abilities are we born with, and which must we learn? How much does the mind affect the body, and how does the body affect the mind? For example, can we change our heart rate or temperature just by thinking about doing so? What can our dreams tell us about our needs, wishes, and desires? Why do we like the people we like? What is mental illness?"

The research findings of psychologists have greatly increased our understanding of why people behave as they do. For example, psychologists have discovered much about how personality develops and how to promote healthy development. They have some knowledge of how to help people change bad habits and how to help students learn. They understand some of the conditions that can make workers more productive. A great deal remains to be discovered. Nevertheless, insights provided by psychology can help people function better as individuals, friends, family members, and workers.

 

Exercise 7.

 

Unit4. FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

 

 

Oral topic

FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

 

Psychology as a profession expresses itself in different fields, or domains of interest. There are a number of fields of psychology, such as clinical, experimental, counseling, developmental, physiological, human factors, and industrial.

Clinical psychology is the field associated with psychotherapy and psychological testing. A clinic is a place where sick people go for help; consequently, clinical psychologists try to help persons with both well-defined mental disorders and serious personal problems. The word psychotherapy, in terms of its roots, means a "healing of the self." In practice, a clinical psychologist who employs psychotherapy attempts to work with a troubled person by using various methods and techniques that are designed to help the individual improve his or her mental health. This is done without drugs. An informal description of psychotherapy refers to it as "the talking cure."

A clinical psychologist should not be confused with a psychiatrist. A fully qualified clinical psychologist has earned a Ph.D. degree (doctor of philosophy with a specialization in psychology). Psychiatry is a medical specialty that gives its attention to mental disorders. A fully qualified psychiatrist has earned an M.D. degree (doctor of medicine). Although psychiatrists can and do practice psychotherapy, they can also prescribe drugs. Clinical psychologists, not being medical doctors, do not prescribe drugs. Clinical psychology is the largest single field of psychology. About 40 percent of psychologists are clinical psychologists.

Experimental psychology is the field associated with research. Experimental psychologists investigate basic behavioral processes such as learning, motivation, perception, memory, and thinking. Subjects may be either animals or human beings. Ivan Pavlov's experiments on conditioned reflexes, associated with the learning process, used dogs as subjects.

The great majority of experimental psychologists are found at the nation's universities. Their duties combine research and teaching. In order to obtain a permanent position and achieve academic promotion, it is necessary for the psychologist to publish the results of experiments in recognized scientific journals. Experimental psychology is not a large field of psychology in terms of numbers of psychologists. Only about 6 percent of psychologists are experimental psychologists.

On the other hand, experimental psychology represents a cutting edge of psychology; it is where much progress is made. The overall concepts and findings in a book such as this one have been made possible primarily by experimental work.

The remaining fields of psychology will be briefly described in terms of what psychologists associated with them do.

A counseling psychologist provides advice and guidance, often in a school setting. Sometimes he or she will, like a clinical psychologist, attempt to help individuals with personal problems. However, if the problems involve a mental disorder, the individual will be referred to a clinical psychologist or a psychiatrist.

A developmental psychologist is concerned with maturational and learning processes in both children and adults. Although a developmental psychologist is usually thought of as a "child psychologist," it is important to realize that a given developmental psychologist might have a particular interest in changes associated with middle-aged or elderly people.

A physiological psychologist, like an experimental psychologist, does research. Subject areas include the structures and functions of the brain, the activity of neurotransmitters (i.e., chemical messengers), and the effect that hormones produced by the endocrine glands have on moods and behavior.

A human factors psychologist combines knowledge of engineering with knowledge of psychology. For example, he or she may be part of a team that is attempting to redesign an aircraft control panel in an attempt to make it more "user friendly" in order to reduce pilot error associated with misperceptions.

An industrial psychologist usually works for a corporation. The principal aim is to provide a work environment that will facilitate production, reduce accidents, and maintain employee morale. A theme that guides industrial psychology is "the human use of human beings".

 

Exercise1. Answer the following questions.

 

1. What is clinical psychology?

2. Who is a psychiatrist?

3. What does experimental psychology explore?

4. What issues does a counseling psychologist deal with?

5. What is the field of activity of a developmental psychologist?

6. What is a physiological psychologist concerned with?

7. What does a human factors psychologist work with?

8. Who is an industrial psychologist?

 

Exercise 2. Do the following tasks on this text:

 

a) divide the text into logical parts

b) give a title to each part

c) give the contents of each part in 1 or 2 sentences

d) give a summary of the whole text.

 

Exercise 3.  Give Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions from the text.

 

Cognitive process; emotional state; emotional action; ancient meanings; human being; mental life; scientific discipline; psychological laboratory; historical perspective; physiology of the sense organs; simple / visual sensations; stimulus; starting date of the school; perception of motion; stationary stimuli; important concept; emotional suffering; principal focus of psychology; mental health.

 

 

Exercise 4. Give English equivalents to the following Russian words and expressions from the text.

 

Область психологии; данные; согласно; психическое расстройство; поведение человека; исследование; научный подход; восприятие; следовательно; человеческое сознание; в конце концов; основная цель психологии; значимость изучения; основатель; сложно определяемое понятие; несколько лет; различные методы и техники; квалифицированный психолог.

 

Exercise 5. Do the test

1. The primary subject matter of psychology is

a. the philosophical concept of the psyche

b. the behavior of organisms

c. the conscious mind

d. the unconscious mind

2. Which one of the following is not a goal of scientific psychology?

a. To abstract behavior

b. To explain behavior

c. To predict behavior

d. To control behavior

3. What characterizes a school of psychology?

a. Its physiological research

b. Its stand on Gestalt psychology

c. Its orientation toward psychoanalysis

d. Its viewpoint and assumptions

4. Functionalism, associated with William James, is particularly interested in

a. introspection

b. the structure of consciousness

c. how the mind works

d. developmental psychology

5. Which one of the following is correctly associated with the German word Gestalt?

a. Neuron b.    Organized whole

c. Physiological psychology

d. Repression

6. What school of psychology indicates that it is important to study behavior itself,
not the mind or consciousness?

a. Behaviorism

b. Structuralism

c. Psychoanalysis

d. Functionalism

7. The principal assumption of psychoanalysis is that

a. habits determine behavior

b. human beings do not have an unconscious mental life

c. human beings have an unconscious mental life

d. all motives are inborn

8. The cognitive viewpoint stresses the importance of

a. learning

b. thinking

c. motivation

d. biological drives

9. What viewpoint stresses the importance of the activity of the brain and nervous

system?

a. The psychodynamic viewpoint

b. The learning viewpoint

c. The humanistic viewpoint

d. The biological viewpoint

10. Psychotherapy is a work activity associated with what field of psychology?

a. Experimental psychology

b. Developmental psychology

c. Clinical psychology

d. Physiological psychology

 

Unit4. FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

 

 Part 2  PSYCHOANALYSIS AS A THEORY

Table of Definitions

 

Term	Definition
Clinical method	A research technique associated primarily with the treatment of individuals with mental or behavioral disorders. It arose within the associated frameworks of psychiatry and clinical psychology.
Control group	The group of test subjects left untreated or unexposed to some procedure and then compared with treated subjects in order to validate the results of the test.
Dependent variable	An outcome measured to see the effectiveness of the treatment.
Empiricism	A theory of knowledge that asserts that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience, emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions.
Experimental group	The target group, the one that will perhaps provide original or particularly interesting data.
Experimental method	A research tool characterized by a control over variables, the identification of a cause (or causes), and a well-defined measure of behavior.

 

Oral topic

THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

 

General scientific methods.

In the days of psychology's long philosophical past, the method used to investigate the behavior of human beings was rationalism. This is the point of view that great discoveries can be made just by doing a lot of hard thinking. This is still a workable approach in some fields of philosophy, and it has certainly been a workable method in mathematics.

In psychology, however, rationalism alone can lead to contradictory conclusions. Using only writing and thinking, the British philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) decided that there are no inborn ideas. Using the same approach as Locke, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) concluded that the human mind does have some a priori information, meaning that there are inborn ideas of a certain kind. So you can see that rationalism alone is an unsatisfactory method for psychology if it claims to be a science.Contemporary psychology combines rationalism with empiricism. Naturally, thinking is used. However, facts are gathered. Empiricism is the point of view that knowledge is acquired by using the senses—by seeing, hearing, touching, and so forth. Empiricism represents what William James called a tough-minded attitude.

Today's researchers do their best to gather data, information relevant to questions they ask about human behavior. But there is the general approach, which is called the scientific method. It is a systematic approach to thinking about an interesting possibility, gathering data, and reaching a conclusion. There are three main steps in the scientific method. The first step is to form a hypothes is, a proposition about a state of affairs in the world. Informally, a hypothesis is an educated guess about the way things are. The second step is gathering data. The third step in the scientific method is to accept or reject the hypothesis

2. Psychological Methods.

Naturalistic Observation: Looking at behavior without interference requires a researcher to study behavior as it is happening in its own setting. The researcher should have a "no interference" policy. When people or animals know they are being observed, they may not behave in the same way as when they're not being observed. Sometimes it is necessary for the researcher to allow for a period of adaptation to his or her presence.

The Clinical Method is a research technique associated primarily with the treatment of individuals with mental or behavioral disorders. It arose within the associated frameworks of psychiatry and clinical psychology. For example, a therapist may treat a troubled person for a span of time. Initially, research may not be the goal. However, at the conclusion of the case, the therapist may decide that the case has many interesting features that make a contribution to our understanding of either the therapy process, behavior, or both. Consequently, the therapist writes up the case, and it is published in a professional journal.

The Survey Method: large samples from larger populations. A survey attempts to take a large, general look at an aspect of behavior. Examples of topics include sexual behavior, eating behavior, how people raise children, spending habits, and so forth. A researcher may be interested in studying a population. Consequently, it is common to conduct the survey taken on a sample of the population. The sample should be taken at random from the population. A random sample allows the laws of chance to operate and provides an equal opportunity for any member of the population to be included in the sample. Members of the population fill out questionnaires, are interviewed, or are otherwise evaluated. This constitutes the survey.

The Testing Method explores human behavior by using psychological tests of attributes such as intelligence, personality, and creativity. These tests are often of the paper-and-pencil variety, and the subject completes the test following a set of instructions. In some cases the test is given in interview form on a one-to-one basis by an examiner. Individual intelligence tests are often administered in this manner.

Two problems associated with psychological testing are validity and reliability. In order for a psychological test to be useful it needs to be both valid and reliable. A valid test measures what it is supposed to measure. If a test that is given to measure the intelligence of subjects instead actually measures the individual's motivation to take the test, the test is invalid.

A reliable test gives stable, repeatable results. If a subject is tested twice with the same instrument within a few days, the two scores obtained should be very close to each other. One of the functions of the next method to be identified, the correlational method, is to establish both the validity and reliability of psychological tests.

The Correlational Method: When X is associated with Y. The word correlation refers to the relationship between two variables. These are usually designated as X and Y on a graph. If scores on one variable can be used to predict scores on the second variable, the variables are said to covary. In some cases there is no relationship. Then a zero correlation is said to exist.

The Experimental Method is a research tool characterized by a control over variables, the identification of a cause (or causes), and a well-defined measure of behavior. These aspects of the experimental method give it great power. Four key concepts will help you understand the experimental method: (1) the control group, (2) the experimental group, (3) the independent variable, and (4) the dependent variable.

The control group receives no treatment; it is dealt with in a more or less conventional manner. It provides a standard of comparison, a set of observations that can be contrasted with the behavior of the experimental group. The experimental group receives a novel treatment, a condition (or set of conditions) that is presumed to affect behavior. It is the target group, the one that will perhaps provide original or particularly interesting data.

The independent variable is one that is assigned to the subjects by the experimenter. There will be at least two values, or measures, of this variable. It is the variable that is thought of as a cause of behavior. The dependent variable is a measure of the behavior of the subjects. In most experiments, this variable can be expressed as a set of scores. The dependent variable is associated with the effect of a cause. Scores make it possible to compute statistical measures and make evaluations based on the data. It is important to note that the process by which subjects are assigned to groups is a random process, meaning all subjects have an equal chance of being included in either group. The aim of this procedure is to cancel out the effects of individual differences in the subjects that may have an effect on the experiment. An experiment can, of course, be much more interesting than the one described, and there can be two or more independent variables.

 

Exercise1. Answer the following questions.

 

1. What is the principal statement of rationalism?

2. What is the main difference between rationalism and empiricism?

3. How many levels does scientific method have?

4. What sciences is naturalistic observation commonly used in?

5. What is the basic idea of the clinical method?

6. What does a survey aim at?

7. How is a survey conducted?

8. What are the disadvantages of the survey method?

9. What is the primary goal of a psychological test?

10. What are the most problematic components of the testing method?

11. What is correlation?

12. How can a zero correlation be described?

13. What are four key concepts of the experimental method?

14. What is the main difference between independent variable and dependent variable?

 

Exercise 2. Do the following tasks on this text:

1. divide the text into logical parts

2. give a title to each part

3. give the contents of each part in 1 or 2 sentences

4. give a summary of the whole text.

 

Exercise 3. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions from the text.

Research method; workable approach; contradictory conclusion; inborn ideas; unsatisfactory method; research tool; contemporary psychology; gathering data; educated guess; decision error; initially; various versions; general look; valuable information; telephone poll; research tool; intelligence quotient; repeatable results; target group; original data; multiple choice test; test performance.

Unit 6.  MEMORY

 

Oral topic

MEMORY

Over the years memory researchers have wrestled endlessly with one major question relating to memory storage: How is knowledge represented and organized in memory? In other words, what forms do our mental representations of information take? Most theorists seem to agree that our mental representations probably take a variety of forms, depending on the nature of the material that needs to be tucked away in memory. For example, memories of visual scenes, of how to perform actions (such as typing or hitting a backhand stroke in tennis), and of factual information (such as definitions or dates in history) are probably represented and organized in very different ways. Many psychologists believe that there are three main kinds of memory: sensory, short-term and long-term. What makes up each of them?

Imagine that a friend who collects facts informs you about brain weight: a human brain weighs about 3 pounds, an elephant brain — approximately 13 pounds, a whale brain -roughly 20 pounds. How may this information make its way into memory? When you simply hear your friend cite the facts, some remembering that you are aware of is going on.

Information that strikes our sense organs is stored on the basis of the so-called sensory memory (SM). Materials held by sensory memory resemble afterimages. Typically, they disappear in less than a second unless they are transferred immediately to a second memory system, short-term memory (STM). How do you transfer sensory data to the short-term store? All you have to do is to attend to the material for a moment. If you listen as your friend talks, you will pass into your short-term memory.

The STM is pictured as the center of consciousness. The STM holds everything we are aware of - thoughts, information, experiences, - at any point in time. The «store» part of STM houses a limited amount of data for some time (usually for about fifteen minutes). We can keep information in SM system longer by repeating it. In addition, the short-term memory «works» as a central executive. It inserts materials into, and removes it from, a third, more or less permanent system, the long-term memory (LTM).

A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or sequence of events. People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas than things that are not. Information stored in memory is often organized around schemas. Thus, recall of an object or event will be influenced by both the actual details observed and the person's schemas for these objects and events.

Entering information into long-term memory is a worthy goal, but an insufficient one if you can't get the information back out again when you need it. Fortunately, recall often occurs without much effort. But occasionally a planned search of LTM is necessary. For instance, imagine that you were asked to recall the names of all 50 states in the United States. You would probably conduct your memory search systematically, recalling states in alphabetical order or by geographical location. Although this example is rather simple, retrieval is a complex process.

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a common experience that occurs to the average person about once a week. It clearly represents a failure in retrieval. Fortunately, memories can often be jogged with retrieval cues — stimuli that help gain access to memories. This was apparent when Roger Brown and David McNeill studied the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. They gave participants definitions of obscure words and asked them to think of the words. Brown and McNeill found that subjects groping for obscure words were correct in guessing the first letter of the missing word 57% of the time. This figure far exceeds chance and shows that partial recollections are often headed in the right direction.

 

Exercise 4. Match the words

 

 

1. access 2. cluster 3. cue 4. error 5. knowledge 6. long-term memory 7. memory 8. mental 9. phenomenon 10.  recall 11.  recollection 12.  representation 13.  retrieval 14.  schema 15.  storage 16.  tip-of-the-tongue 17.  to recall

a. воспоминание b. воспоминание c. воспроизведение d. долговременная память e. доступ f. мысленный g. ошибка h. память i. представление j. сведения k. совокупность l. стимул m. схема n. явление o. хранение информации p. на кончике языка q. вспоминать

 

Let’s imagine that some of you are family therapist, some of you are teens with family problems. Children are worried about the situation and have decided to discuss the problem with a family therapist who in his/her turn have invited them to participate in a family therapy session.

One of the important problems of all times is a generation gap. Adult's mentality is different from teenager's. We are the children of two epochs with different views on various subjects. Because of this parents and children sometimes argue with each other.

Some people believe that teenagers today are generally rude, lazy and ill-behaved. Other people, however, think that teenagers are not so bad. Sometimes people don't understand teenagers. They don't understand some problems and things which are very important in teenagers' life, for example the lifestyles, piercing, tattoos, relationship with friends and teachers.

Some people don't want to understand modern views, ideals and our system of values. They say that teenagers are cruel, brutal, heartless and rude. Yes, today new generation "plays" with smoking, drugs and alcohol, but this doesn't mean that all teens are really bad!
On the other hand, today many elderly people look at the world with new eyes. Moreover, they try to understand teenagers' problems and solve them.

Most of the quarrels between parents and children happen because of children's marks at school and generation gap. We try to learn better, but if we have a bad mark our parents can shout at us.

In most cases "new generation" doesn't understand their parents and becomes depressed because of this. To protest against it, teens can shock people around them. That's why it is considered that teens today are lazy and ill-behaved. Elderly people usually compare their childhood and youth with present, they are always talking about "the good old days". People are said to become wiser with age. Sometimes it is true and sometimes it is not. I think that you can meet a wise man among the old as often as among the young. It is wrong that when wisdom always comes in old age. Sometimes when we talk to adults, they listen only to threir own point of view. That's why some teens don't like to talk to adults. To sum it up, nowadays everyone has a different view on teen's life. But, in fact, we should simply learn to understand each other.

 

Exercise 10. Match the words.

 

1. caring 2. sharing (mutual) 3. respect 4. security 5. comfort 6. privacy 7. trust

a) the state of being free from public attention b) feeling that someone is important, so that you are interested in them, worried about them, etc. c) a strong belief in the honesty, goodness etc. of someone or something d) the state of being protected of bad things that could happen to you e) having the same opinion, experience, feeling etc. as someone else f) an attitude of regarding someone as important so that you are careful not to harm them, treat them rudely, etc. g) feeling of being calm, more cheerful, or hopeful after you have been worried or unhappy

 

Exercise 11. Translate into English :

 

1.Очень трудно для разных поколений понимать друг друга, но это тоже очень важно. 2.Всем членам семьи следует уважать и понимать друг друга, помогать и доверять друг другу. 3. Это важно учиться как разговаривать с взаимным уважением. 4. Мы ответственные люди и нам следует уважать самих себя и других людей тоже. 5. Нам следует быть cснисходительными к нашим родителям и к людям, которые нас окружают. 6. Детям и их родителям следует уважать интересы друг друга. 7. Нам следует любить друг друга.

Unit4. MY FUTURE PROFESSION

 

Oral topic

MY FUTURE PROFESSION

I am I am a student of Brest State University Psychology-pedagogical Faculty. In a several years I’ll graduate from the University and become a professional psychologist. To become a good psychologist one must know much. So at the University we are taught various general and special subject such as children psychology, philosophy, pedagogy, general psychology, psychodiagnostics, English, history of Belarus.

There are many careers in psychology. Psychology includes both research, through which we learn fundamental things about human and animal behaviour, and practice, through which that knowledge is applied in helping people to solve problems. Psychology is an extremely varied field. Psychologists conduct research, serve as consultants, diagnose and treat people, and teach future psychologists and other types of students. They test intelligence and personality.

 As scientists, psychologists use scientific methods of observation, experimentation and analysis. But psychologists also need to be creative in the way they apply scientific findings.

 Psychologists are frequently innovators, inventing new approaches to people and societies. They develop theories and test them in their research. As they collect new information, these findings can be used by practitioners in their work with clients and patients.

 As practitioners psychologists work in laboratories, hospitals, courtrooms, schools and universities, prisons and corporate offices. They work with business executives, performers, and athletes to reduce stress and improve performance. They advise lawyers on jury selection and cooperate with educators on school reform. Immediately following a disaster, such as a plane crush or bombing, psychologists help victims and bystanders recover from the shock of the event.

 Involved in all aspects of our world, psychologists must keep up with what is happening around us. When you are a psychologist, your education never ends. What all psychologists have in common is an interest in the minds of both humans and animals.

 Most psychologists say they love their work. They say that they have a variety of daily tasks and the flexibility of their schedules.

 The study of psychology is a good preparation for many other professions. Many employers are interested in the skills of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data, and their experience with statistics and experimental design.

 Psychology is a very diverse field with hundreds of career paths. We all know about caring for people with mental and emotional disorders. Some other jobs like helping with the design of computer systems are less well-known. Whether I will be a good psychologist or become successful in some other field of social life remains to be seen. But I'm sure that my knowledge received at the University will help me succeed in my future work.

Exercise 3.Match the words

1. career 2. treat 3. intelligence 4. observation 5. experimentation 6. analysis 7. invent 8. practitioner 9. reduce stress 10. disaster 11. victim 12. bystander 13. recover 14. flexibility 15. schedule 16. skill 17. interpret data 18. experience 19. care for 20. mental disorder

a) анализ b) восстанавливаться, приходить в себя, выздоравливать c) гибкость, приспособляемость d) жертва e) заботиться о f) изобретать g) интеллект, ум h) интерпретировать данные i) карьера j) катастрофа, несчастье k) лечить l) наблюдение m) навык, умение n) опыт (жизненный) o) практик p) психическое нарушение, психическое расстройство q) расписание, план r) свидетель, очевидец s) уменьшать стресс t) эксперимент

Exercise 6.  Read the text.

LEARNING BY HEART

 

Some people have good memories, and can learn easily long poems by heart. But they often forget them as quickly as they learn them. There are other people who can only remember things when they repeat them many times, and then they don't forget them.

Charles Dickens, the famous English author, said he could walk down any long street in London and then tell you the name of every shop he had passed. Many of the great men of the world have had wonderful memories.

A good memory is a good help in learning a language. Everybody learns his own language by remembering what he hears when he is a small child, and some children — like boys and girls who live abroad with their parents — seem to learn two languages almost as easily as one. In school it is not so easy to learn a second language because the pupils have so little time for it, and they are busy with other subjects as well.

The best way for most of us to remember things is to join them in our mind with something which we know already, or which we easily remember because we have a picture of it in our mind. That is why it is better to learn words in sentences, not by themselves; or to see, or do, or feel what a word means when we first use it.

The human mind is rather like a camera, but it takes photographs not only of what we see but of what we feel, hear, smell and taste. And there is much work to be done before we can make a picture remain forever in the mind.

Memory is the diary that we all carry about with us.

 

MUSIC AND MEMORY

 

Some people are able to listen to isolated musical notes and identify them correctly. This rare musical gift is known as «perfect pitch» or «absolute pitch». It is not something that can be learned. Either you have the ability or you haven't. But most people, given the necessary musical training, can acquire what is known as «relative pitch». This is the ability to compare two notes accurately, to name a note by reference to one which has already been played and named.

The interesting thing about the difference between these two abilities is that they make use of different brain functions. According to existing evidence, relative pitch is a feature of a highly-trained memory. But people with perfect pitch don't seem to be using memory at all. Instead they seem to have some set of internal «standards» that allows them to name a note without comparing it to anything previously heard.

Researchers at the University of Illinois in the USA used this difference to try and identify the parts of the brain used in updating short-term memory. They compared the brain waves of two groups of musicians as they tried to identify a series of computer-generated musical notes. One group had perfect pitch, the other used relative pitch.

Each person's brain waves were measured by electrodes placed near the front of the head. The really interesting finding was that what are known as «P300» waves were produced in abundance by the group of musicians without perfect pitch, but scarcely at all by those with perfect pitch. The «P300» wave, then, seems to be an indicator of how much use the brain is making of short-term memory. Scientists had suspected this, but if the only difference between the mental activities of the two groups was whether they were using short-term memory or not, the research appears to confirm it.

Psychiatrists now know more about which parts of the brain are associated with short-term memory, but the musical gift of perfect pitch is as much of a mystery as ever.

 

HEALING UNDER HYPNOSIS

Hypnosis means sleep in Greek. Maybe that's why the prevailing opinion is that it is a passive state in which a person's will is paralyzed. In real life, however, hypnosis is a special state of the human's psychic activities and of the nervous system. Experiments staged by Vladimir Raikov, a well-known psychotherapist, showed that abilities which the subjects hadn't even suspected they have before may be aroused in them in a hypnotic state.

For example, under hypnosis, a first-year student at a conservatoire performed piano pieces with the skill of a first-class master. Others subjected to the test started playing chess about two categories of skill higher. The important thing is that the aroused abilities do not disappear after hypnosis. If the people were doing drawings under hypnosis, then after 15 to 20 sessions their drawings could well be displayed at professional exhibitions.

Hypnosis helps in curing people of illness. It is suggested to the patient that he is healthy. The patient trains for about a month to learn how to arouse this feeling of health in himself. The feeling of health becomes a habit, which, in its turn, mobilizes the organism to combat the disease.

Hypnosis can heal hypertension, angina pectoris, cardiac diseases, ulcers at early stages, and many neuroses.

 

TASTE AND SMELL LESSEN WITH AGE

 

The senses of taste and smell are inextricably connected, and both can have a profound effect on appetite. In elderly persons, the neurological functions that govern these senses decrease with age as a result of age-related neuron loss, and the elderly lose the intensity of taste and smell that they possessed when younger. This can lead to a concomitant decline in appetite, which may lead to nutritional problems, reported the American researchers.

The scientists used an olefactometer to compare the abilities of college students and elderly people to detect and discriminate odors. The groups were matched as much as possible for background and socio-economic level, both of which can be important factors in familiarity with tastes and smells.

College students are able to detect an odor at much lower concentrations than are elderly people. This change in threshold affects eating not only because odor itself can stimulate appetite, but also because some people notice a bitter taste in foods that they are unable to smell. The scientists report that a significantly greater percentage of elderly persons complained of a bitter flavor in foods that tasted normal to younger subjects. For the elderly, this may mean that foods they once enjoyed no longer taste good.

A decreased sense of smell among elderly persons held true not only for food, but for less pleasant odors as well. The researchers tested their subjects with urine like odors, and found that aged subjects had even more difficulty detecting those odors than they did detecting the food smells. They believe that this may account for the tolerance in the elderly of the sometimes malodorous atmosphere of nursing homes and hospitals. Many younger persons say that they can't stand to work there because of the smell, although older residents seem unbothered.

The scientists also found that elderly persons lose the ability to discriminate between unlike tastes, as well as to identify familiar ones. They prepared foods to make them identical in consistency, then tested them on blindfolded subjects. For elderly persons, things began to taste the same. The person might be able to detect a taste, but not be able to tell what it is. For example, only 55 percent of the elderly subjects recognized the taste of apple, while 61 percent of the college students identified it correctly. Many elderly persons prefer fruit flavors, however, because the ability to taste these flavors often lingers longer.

The explanation for this decline in sensory ability may lie in the fact that tastes are coded across neurons. For example, there is a difference in the codes for salty tastes and for bitter tastes. With age we drop neurons, and so with age there is less difference between the two patterns. If a person needed a total neural mass of, say ten, to detect taste, he may need a larger mass to discriminate between tastes.

 

THE MEANING OF DREAMS

 

Nearly half of all women admit they dream several times a night but usually have no idea what the dreams mean. That's a pity because your dreams can tell you a lot about yourself. During an average night you'll drift into light sleep and then deep sleep. You'll go through five of these hour-long cycles. Before each new cycle – for between 10 and 30 minutes – you'll be in dreamland: an unstructured world where nothing is impossible.

By studying your dreams you can learn a great deal about yourself. Overweight people dream more than thin. Women dream more than men: 45 per cent of women say that they dream several times a night, but only 34 per cent of men say they dream that often.

It is possible to choose what to dream about. As you fall asleep, make sure that the last thing on your mind is the scene or person you want to dream about. But be warned. It is impossible to decide exactly what is going to happen. Your plans for a night of romantic passion could easily turn into something else.

A growing number of scientists believe that premonitions - either when you are awake or when you are in dreamland — may be just as real as other senses. But if you regularly have dreams about terrible things happening to you or those you love, you are almost certainly not dreaming about things that are going to happen but events that you are worried about.

If you dream of TV stars, this may mean that you want your life to be more exciting. If you felt inferior, then your confidence probably needs a boost.

A dream about death may signify you are looking forward to something about to happen - a new job or a new relationship, for example.

 

 

SKEPTICISM AND HUMILITY

 

The first scientific attitude, skepticism, spurs us to check our ideas against observation. Because our intuitive hunches are prone to error, scientists typically approach them with an attitude of open-minded doubt. Do parents and infants "bond" more closely with one another if allowed body contact during the first hour after birth? Can movie theater owners motivate you to buy popcorn by flashing an imperceptibly brief image of the words "eat popcorn" on the screen? Can astrologers analyze character and predict your fu­ture based on the positions of the planets at the moment of your birth?

All such claims can be tested with open-minded skepticism: If they are refuted—as the above claims have been—we can reject them; if they are confirmed, we can reject the skepticism. It is by careful scru­tiny of competing ideas that we sift profound insights from believable fantasies. Over and over again we will see that the scientist's attitude is like a detective's. The energetic scientist is a sleuth who checks various leads, dismissing most, but verifying some.

The scientific ideal is also one of humility. Scientists know that their personal opinions are never the last word. So they test their ideas and then report their research precisely enough to allow others to replicate (repeat) their observations, usually by recreating the essence of a study and seeing whether they get the same results. If, when tested, nature does not conform to our ideas, then so much the worse for our ideas. If animals or people do not behave in accord with the expectations of a psychological theory, then so much the worse for the theory. This is the attitude expressed in one of experimental psychology's early mottos: "The rat is always right."

This attitude of humility before nature is not always apparent in the behavior of scientists who, like anyone else, can have big egos and may cling stubbornly to their pet theories. Nevertheless, historians of science tell us that the attitudes of skepti­cism and humility helped make modern science possible. Many of the founders of modern science were people like mathematician-physicist Isaac Newton, people whose religious convictions emboldened them to think that the created world was worth exploring and that, owing no ultimate allegiance to any human authority, they should humbly ac­cept whatever truths nature revealed.

 

SENSORY REGISTERS

 

Consider what one intriguing memory experiment revealed about how sensory information first enters the memory system. As part of his doctoral research, George Sperling (1960) showed people three rows of three letters each for only 1/20th of a second. It was like trying to read by the flashes of a lightning storm. After the nine letters had disappeared from the screen, the subjects could recall only about half of them.

Why? Was it because they had insufficient time to see them? No, Sperling cleverly demonstrated that even at such lightning-flash speed, people actually can see and recall all the letters, but only mo­mentarily. Rather than ask subjects to recall all nine letters at once, Sperling instead would sound a high, medium, or low tone immedi­ately after the nine letters were flashed. This cue directed the subject to report only the letters of the top, middle, or bottom row, respectively. Now the subjects rarely missed a letter. Because they did not know in advance which row would be requested, all nine letters must have been momentarily available for recall.

Sperling's experiment revealed that we do have a fleeting photo­graphic memory called iconic memory. For a moment, the eyes register an exact representation of a scene, and can recall any part of it in amaz­ing detail. But only for a moment. If Sperling delayed the tone signal by as much as a second, the iconic memory was gone and the subjects once again recalled only about half of the letters. The visual screen clears quickly, as it must, lest new images be superimposed over old ones. For sound, the auditory sensory image, called echoic memory, disappears more slowly. The last few words spoken seem to linger for 3 or 4 seconds. Sometimes, just as you ask "What did you say?," you can hear in your mind the echo of what was said.

 

KNOWING WHAT WE KNOW

Sometimes we know more than we are aware of. Other times—perhaps when taking an exam—we discover that we do not know something as well as we thought we did. The difficulties of knowing what you know are strikingly evident in the amnesic patients who know how to do things without knowing that they know. The parallel to learning during infancy is intriguing: We recall nothing, yet what we learn reaches far into our future.

How accurate are we at assessing what we know? John Shaughnessy explored this question in an ex­periment with two groups of Hope College students. One group was (1) repeatedly shown dozens of factual statements, (2) asked to judge the likelihood that they would later remember each fact, and then (3) actually tested on their recall. Students in this group tended to feel fairly confident of their knowledge, even on the questions they later missed. Instead of constantly reading the statements, students in a second group also spent much of their time evaluating their knowledge by answering practice test questions. These students learned the facts just as well as did the mere-repetition group. What is more, the prac­tice-test group could better discriminate what they did and didn't know. Thus, self-testing not only encourages active rehearsal, it also can help you to know what you know—and thus to focus your study time on what you do not yet know. As the British statesman Benjamin Disraeli once said, "To be conscious that you are ignorant is a great step to knowledge."

 

NEUROLAW

Neurolaw is an emerging field of interdisciplinary study that explores the effects of discoveries in neuroscience on legal rules and standards. Drawing from neuroscience, philosophy, social psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and criminology, neurolaw practitioners seek to address not only the descriptive and predictive issues of how neuroscience is and will be used in the legal system, but also the normative issues of how neuroscience should and should not be used.

The most prominent questions that have emerged from this exploration are as follows: To what extent can a tumor or brain injury alleviate criminal punishment? Can sentencing or rehabilitation regulations be influenced by neuroscience? Who is permitted access to images of a person's brain? Neuroscience is beginning to address these questions in its effort to understand human behavior, and will potentially shape future aspects of legal processes.

 New insights into the psychology and cognition of the brain have been made available by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These new technologies were a break from the conventional and primitive views of the brain that have been prevalent in the legal system for centuries. Brain imaging has provided a much deeper insight into thought processes, and will have an effect on the law because it contests customary beliefs about mental development. Because the science is still developing and because there is substantial opportunity for misuse, the legal realm recognizes the need to proceed cautiously.

Neurolaw proponents are quickly finding means to apply neuroscience to a variety of different contexts. For example, intellectual property could be better evaluated through neuroscience. Major areas of current research include applications in the courtroom, how neuroscience can and should be used legally, and how the law is created and applied.

 

THE MILTON MODEL IN NLP

 

The Milton model in Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a form of hypnotherapy based on the language patterns for hypnotic communication of Milton Erickson, a noted hypnotherapist. It has been described as "a way of using language to induce and maintain trance in order to contact the hidden resources of our personality." The Milton model has three primary aspects: Firstly, to assist in building and maintaining rapport with the client. Secondly, to overload and distract the conscious mind so that unconscious communication can be cultivated. Thirdly, to allow for interpretation in the words offered to the client.

1. Rapport

The first aspect, building rapport, or empathy, is done to achieve better communication and responsiveness. NLP teaches 'mirroring' or matching body language, posture, breathing, predicates and voice tonality. Rapport is an aspect of 'pacing' or tuning into the client or learners world. Once pacing is established, the practitioner can 'lead' by changing their behavior or perception so the other follows. O'Connor & Seymour in "Introducing NLP" describe rapport as a 'harmonious dance', an extension of natural skills, but warn against mimicry. Singer gives examples of the pantomime effect of mere mimicry by some practitioners which does not create rapport.

2. Overloading conscious attention

The second aspect of the milton model is that it uses ambiguity in language and non-verbal communication. This might also be combined with vagueness, which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct. The use of ambiguity and vagueness distracts the conscious mind as it tries to work out what is meant which gives the unconscious mindthe opportunity to prosper.

3. Indirect communication

The third aspect of the Milton model is that it is purposely vague and metaphoric for the purpose of accessing the unconscious mind. It is used to soften the meta model and make indirect suggestions. A direct suggestion merely states what is wanted, for example, "when you are in front of the audience you will not feel nervous". In contrast an indirect suggestion is less authoritative and leaves an opportunity for interpretation, for example, "When you are in front of the audience, you might find yourself feeling ever more confident". This example follows the indirect method leaving both the specific time and level of self-confidence unspecified. It might be made even more indirect by saying, "when you come to a decision to speak in public, you may find it appealing how your feelings have changed." The choice of speaking in front of the audience, the exact time and the likely responses to the whole process are framed but the imprecise language gives the client the opportunity to fill in the finer details.

 

 

META-PROGRAMS IN NLP

 

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) uses the term 'meta-programs' specifically to indicate general, pervasive and usually habitual patterns used by an individual across a wide range of situations. Examples of NLP meta-programs include the preference for overview or detail, the preference for where to place one's attention during conversation, habitual linguistic patterns and body language, and so on.

Related concepts in other disciplines are known as cognitive styles or thinking styles.

In NLP, the term programs is used as a synonym for strategy, which are specific sequences of mental steps, mostly indicated by their representational activity (using VAKOG), leading to a behavioral outcome. In the entry for the term strategy in their Encyclopedia, Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier explicitly refer to the mind as computer metaphor: "A strategy is like a program in a computer. It tells you what to do with the information you are getting, and like a computer program, you can use the same strategy to process a lot of different kinds of information." In their encyclopedia, Dilts and Delozier then define metaprograms as: "programs which guide and direct other thought processes. Specifically they define common or typical patterns in the strategies or thinking styles of a particular individual, group or culture."

The book 'Words that Change Minds' by Shelle Rose Charvet documents 13 distinct meta-programs categories effecting work-place motivation and performance, commonly known as the Language and Behaviour Profile or 'LAB Profile'. It is based on the work of Rodger Bailey and Ross Steward who wanted to make meta-programs usable to people without NLP training.

 

MOODS AND MEMORIES

Words, events, and contexts are not the only retrieval cues, Events in the past may have aroused a specific emotion, which can later prime us to recall its associated events. Cognitive psy­chologist Gordon Bower (1983) explains: "A specific emotional state is like a specific room in a library into which the subject places memory records, and he can most easily retrieve those records by returning to that same room or emotional state." The things we learn in one state-be it joyful or sad, drunk or sober—are therefore most easily recalled when we are again in the same state, a phenomenon called state-Dependent memory. What is learned when drunk, high, or depressed is not recalled well—because drugs and depression inter­fere with encoding—but it's recalled better when again drunk, high, or depressed.

Some examples: If people are put in a buoyant mood—whether under hypnosis or just by the day's events (a World Cup soccer victory for the West German subjects of one recent study)—they commonly recall the world through rose-colored glasses; thus they judge them­selves to be competent and effective, other people to be benevolent, life in general to be wonderful. Put in a bad mood, the very same people suddenly see everything more negatively.

The mood-memory link seems strongest with autobiographical rec­ollections of everyday events (called episodic memory), because in every­day situations people attribute their emotions to events associated with the emotions. Thus currently depressed people recall their parents as having been rejecting, punitive, and guilt-promoting, whereas formerly depressed people describe their parents no differently than do those who have never suffered from severe depression. Being depressed sours memories. You and I may nod our heads knowingly. Yet, curiously, when in a good or bad mood, we persist—and will continue to do so even after learning about state-dependent memory—in attributing our changing judgments and memories to reality rather than to our temporary mood. We perceive the world out there in different ways, depending on our mood.

Moods color both our retrieval of past experiences and our encod­ing of new experiences. Bad moods predispose us to notice and interpret other people's behavior in negative ways. When in a good mood the same actions create a more positive impression.

The effect of mood on encoding and retrieval helps explain why our moods persist. When happy, we recall happy events, which helps prolong the good mood. When depressed, we recall depressing events, which in turn feeds depressing interpretations of current events.

 

FREUD AND DREAMS

According to the Freudian theory, dreams don't reveal anything about the future. Instead they tell us something about our present unresolved and unconscious complexes and may lead us back to the early years of our lives, when, according to psycho-analytic theory, the ground was being prepared for these later defects. There are three main hypotheses in this general theory.

The first hypothesis is that the dream is not a meaningless jumble of images and ideas, accidentally thrown together, but rather that the dream is a whole, and every element in it is meaningful. This idea is a very ancient one. For Freud it follows directly from the deterministic standpoint: i.e., from the view that all mental and physical events have causes and could be predicted if these causes were fully known. This is a philosophical notion with which few scientists would wish to quarrel. Freud's argument of the meaningfulness of dreams is directly connected with his general theory that all our acts are meaningfully determined; a theory which embraces mispronunciations, gestures, lapses, emotions and soforth.

The second point that Freud makes is that dreams are always in some sense a wish fulfillment; in other words, they have a purpose, and this purpose is the satisfaction of some desire or drive, usually of an unconscious character. This is linked up with his general theory of personality. Roughly speaking, Freud recognizes three main parts of personality: one, which he calls the id, is a kind of reservoir, as it were, provides the dynamic energy for most of our activities. Opposed to it we have the so-called super-ego, which is partly conscious and partly unconscious and which is the repository of social morality. Intervening between the two, and trying to resolve their opposition, is the ego; i.e., the conscious part of our personality.

Thirdly, Freud believes that desires and wishes, having been repressed from consciousness because they are unacceptable to the socialized mind of the dreamer, are not allowed to emerge even into the dream without disguise. A censor or super-ego watches over them and ensures that they can only emerge into the dream in a disguise so heavy that they are unrecognizable.

The link-up between Freud's theory of personality and his theory of dream interpretation is a very simple one: the forces of the id are constantly trying to gain control of the ego and to force themselves into consciousness. During the individual's waking life, the super-ego firmly represses them and keeps them unconscious; during sleep, however, the super-ego is less watchful, and consequently some of the desires start up in the id and are allowed to escape in the form of dreams. However, the super-ego may nod, but it is not quite asleep, and consequently these wish-fulfilling thoughts require to be heavily disguised. This disguise is stage-managed by what Freud calls the dream work. Accordingly, it is necessary to distinguish between the manifest dream, i.e. the dream as experienced and perhaps written down, and the latent dream, i.e. the thoughts, wishes, and desires expressed in the dream with their disguises removed. The task of the analyst and interpreter on this view is to explain the manifest dream in terms of the latent dream.

 

THINKING

Psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem. Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. The school of thought arising from this approach is known as cognitivism which is interested in how people mentally represent information processing. It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who provided a theory of stages/phases that describe children's cognitive development.

Cognitive psychologists use psychophysical and experimental approaches to understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. They study various aspects of thinking, including the psychology of reasoning, and how people make decisions and choices, solve problems, as well as engage in creative discovery and imaginative thought. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms—rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristics—rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. Cognitive science differs from cognitive psychology in that algorithms that are intended to simulate human behavior are implemented or implementable on a computer. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships.

In developmental psychology, Jean Piaget was a pioneer in the study of the development of thought from birth to maturity. In his theory of cognitive development, thought is based on actions on the environment. That is, Piaget suggests that the environment is understood through assimilations of objects in the available schemes of action and these accommodate to the objects to the extent that the available schemes fall short of the demands. As a result of this interplay between assimilation and accommodation, thought develops through a sequence of stages that differ qualitatively from each other in mode of representation and complexity of inference and understanding. That is, thought evolves from being based on perceptions and actions at the sensorimotor stage in the first two years of life to internal representations in early childhood. Subsequently, representations are gradually organized into logical structures which first operate on the concrete properties of the reality, in the stage of concrete operations, and then operate on abstract principles that organize concrete properties, in the stage of formal operations. In recent years, the Piagetian conception of thought was integrated with information processing conceptions. Thus, thought is considered as the result of mechanisms that are responsible for the representation and processing of information. In this conception, speed of processing, cognitive control, and working memory are the main functions underlying thought. In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, the development of thought is considered to come from increasing speed of processing, enhanced cognitive control, and increasing working memory.

Positive psychology emphasizes the positive aspects of human psychology as equally important as the focus on mood disorders and other negative symptoms. In Character Strengths and Virtues, Peterson and Seligman list a series of positive characteristics. One person is not expected to have every strength, nor are they meant to fully capsulate that characteristic entirely. The list encourages positive thought that builds on a person's strengths, rather than how to "fix" their "symptoms."

 

NLP AS QUASI-RELIGION

Sociologists and anthropologists – amongst others –have categorized NLP as a quasi-religion belonging to the New Age and/or Human Potential Movements. Medical anthropologist Jean M. Langford categorizes NLP as a form of folk magic; that is to say, a practice with symbolic efficacy – as opposed to physical efficacy – that is able to effect change through nonspecific effects (e.g., placebo). To Langford, NLP is akin to a syncretic folk religion that attempts to wed the magic of folk practice to the science of professional medicine. Bandler and Grinder were influenced by the shamanism described in the books of Carlos Castaneda. Several ideas and techniques have been borrowed from Castaneda and incorporated into NLP including so called double induction and the notion of "stopping the world" which is central to NLP modeling. Tye characterizes NLP as a type of "psycho shamanism". Fanthorpe see a similarity between the mimetic procedure and intent of NLP modeling and aspects of ritual in some syncretic religions. Hunt draws a comparison between the concern with lineage from an NLP guru – which is evident amongst some NLP proponents – and the concern with guru lineage in some Eastern religions.

Bovbjerg identifies NLP as a New Age "psycho-religion" and uses NLP as a case-study to demonstrate the thesis that the New Age psycho-religions such as NLP are predicated on an intrinsically religious idea, namely concern with a transcendent «other». In the world's monotheistic faiths, argues Bovbjerg, the purpose of religious practice is communion and fellowship with a transcendent 'other', i.e. a God. With the New Age psycho-religions, argues Bovbjerg, this orientation towards a transcendent 'other' persists but the other has become "the other in our selves", the so-called unconscious: "the individual's inner life becomes the intangible focus of psycho-religious practices and the subconscious becomes a constituent part of modern individuals' understanding of the self. Bovbjerg adds, "courses in personal development would make no sense without an unconscious that contains hidden resources and hidden knowledge of the self." Thus psycho-religious practice revolves around ideas of the conscious and unconscious self and communicating with and accessing the hidden resources of the unconscious self—the transcendent other. According to Bovbjerg the notion that we have an unconscious self underlies many NLP techniques either explicitly or implicitly. Bovbjerg argues, "through particular practices, the NLP practitionerqua psycho-religious practitioner expects to achieve self-perfection in a never-ending transformation of the self."

Bovbjerg's secular critique of NLP is echoed in the conservative Christian perspective of the New Age as represented by Jeremiah who argues that, the ′transformation′ recommended by the founders and leaders of these business seminars has spiritual implications that a non-Christian or new believer may not recognize. The belief that human beings can change themselves by calling upon the power (or god) within or their own infinite human potential is a contradiction of the Christian view. The Bible says man is a sinner and is saved by God's grace alone.

 

SUICIDE TODAY

Before when people wanted to commit suicide, they would throw themselves under a car. Nowadays Russian businessmen have found a new method - they take out or damage the brakes of their car, sit behind the wheel, and take off.

Why are there so many suicides for no apparent reason? Chemists are searching for answers to this question. Post mortem examinations reveal that more than 95 percent of those who take their own life have certain changes in their brain chemistry. It is also known that in the few weeks before their deaths, more than half of suicide victims visit their doctor. Usually, the doctor can't find anything wrong, and so the patient is sent home.

In the opinion of Vladimir Skavysh, a specialist at the Suicide Center, there is a predisposition to suicide in some people. However, this does not mean that there is a 'suicide gene', because the problem is psychological rather than biological. There are many cases where suicide becomes hereditary. However, this is presumably a case of inheriting the principle of behavior in a critical situation. In other words, at present science cannot give us an unequivocal answer to the question of whether a suicide gene exists.

It is well known that in certain circumstances the risk of suicide increases sharply. People are more at risk if one of their parents had killed themselves; if their parents are divorced; if their parents fight like cat and dog; if they are impulsive and cannot control their actions. The highest risk category consists of introverts, that are people who, after some kind of misfortune, direct their rage at themselves rather than lash out at those around them. Extroverts deal with their emotions by preferring to simply smash someone in the face rather than indulge in protracted contemplation of human malice and therefore hardly ever commit suicide.

A quarter of all successful suicide victims are mentally ill, another quarter are completely healthy, and the rest are on the border-line - neither ill nor healthy, but inclined to neuroses and tragic perception of reality. There are many different reasons why some people commit suicide. The real reason may be difficult to establish, even when the victim has left a note. Often the notes describe completely different reasons, or things which really have only a slight or no connection at all with their decision to die. Some decide to kill themselves without really knowing why — perhaps because insomnia suggested the idea of suicide or it may have rained too hard or too long.

According to Alekper Tagi-Zade, manager of the Samaritans - a charitable association for the prevention of suicides - the profile of a typical potential suicide is something like this: a woman between 35 and 40, with a university degree, and in the overwhelming majority of cases unmarried and without a boyfriend. Failure in one's personal life very often leads to thoughts of suicide, and neither men nor women are strong enough to acknowledge that this is the cause of their depression, so they prefer to attribute everything to unpleasantness at work, money worries, health anxieties, or social problems.

Only one in seven or eight attempted suicides is 'successful'. Women attempt to commit suicide much more frequently than men. However, men are four times more likely to actually commit suicide than women. The most frequent method is an overdose, but fatalities from this method are few.

The most reliable suicide method is by hanging. Ten years ago an elderly American woman carried out what became known as the 'suicide of the century'. She attached a long rope to the balcony of her skyscraper with a noose so that one end reached the ground and the other end would tighten up in flight, she took a fatal dose of sleeping tablets, stood on the edge of the balcony, and shot herself in the head with a revolver. In this way an ordinary American pensioner contrived to kill herself in four different ways.

Specialists often cite this case as evidence that those who make unsuccessful attempts really do not intend to die. Any suicide victim whose decision is irrevocable makes very careful preparations. In such cases there are no overdoses with long-expired pills, weak ropes or defective bullets.

Does one have the right to take one's own life? To whom does human life belong? To the person, his nearest and dearest, the state of God? In some countries such as Canada, Denmark, Chile suicide attempts are punishable by law. But history has known periods when suicide was a cult. In ancient Rome patricians preferred to depart from their life early rather than become a burden to their relatives in their declining years. In Japan, the highest form of valour and revenge was hari-kiri.

In Russia it was always thought that only sick people killed themselves. In 1716, the future Tsar Peter wrote in the Poteshny Regiment Rules and Regulations: "If someone kills themselves, then an executioner should drag their body through the streets, then take it away to an inaccessible place and bury it."

In recent years the suicide rate in Russia has gone up. Personal loneliness has been added to social loneliness, the fear of losing one's job, one's home, the ground under one's feet. In Russia, in 1998, there were 45 suicides per 100,000 which is a terribly high figure by world standards. In England the figure today is nine per 100,000 and in pre-revolutionary Russia the 'norm' was three per 100,000. The WHO has acknowledged that today in Russia suicide is a slowly unfolding crisis.

When someone starts talking about killing himself and tells his closest friends about it, they should not let him out of their sight for a moment, and keep in constant touch with him. At such times human contact is more important than even before. Doctors advise those who want to cope with delusions on their own that they should buy a ticket for a long train journey, and unburden their soul to the first person who comes along, it will take a great load off their minds.

 

 

HYPNOSIS " USEFUL IN MEDICINE, DANGEROUS IN COURT "

 

The use of hypnosis is spreading. The technique has been accepted by the American Medical Association, the American Psychiatric Association and the American Psychological Association. In addition to many encouraging clinical reports, there is now a growing body of research which helps to clarify the nature of hypnosis and supports its use in a variety of areas.

We know that hypnosis has many useful applications in medicine, such as in the treatment of pain. It can lower an individual's level of arousal, and it helps in the treatment of stress. It is effective in the treatment of some forms of asthma and in certain skin disorders. It can even help modify the response of the body's immune system. Hypnosis is also used in psychiatry in a variety of ways: in the context of psychodynamic therapy, to uncover feelings and memories; in the context of behavioral approaches, to facilitate imagery.

The medical uses of hypnosis are not controversial: what is controversial is the use of hypnosis in questioning suspects and witnesses to solve crimes.

If hypnosis is used to create pseudo memories, it can be extremely dangerous in the courtroom. If you use hypnosis to convince a jury that an innocent man is guilty, it can lead to a terrible miscarriage of justice.

Many of the effects of hypnosis wear off rapidly. Typical posthypnotic suggestions do not tend to persist over long periods, but hypnosis can permanently distort memory if the hypnotized subject comes to believe that he has remembered something that had not actually occurred.

Like any therapeutic techniques, hypnosis has certain risks. Used in competent hands for appropriate reasons, hypnosis is very effective.

Hypnosis is a state or condition where the subject focuses his mind on the suggestions of the hypnotist so that he is able to experience distortions of memory or perception. For the time being, the subject suspends disbelief and lowers his critical judgment. A good way to think of it is that your mind becomes so focused that you really get into fantasy. You become so absorbed in what you are thinking that you begin to experience it as reality.

Dramatic results have been achieved in the relief of asthma and some other allergies. This is because hypnosis can at times modify the body's immune system and block some of the allergic reaction. Hypnosis can be quite effective in arresting intractable hiccups and treating some forms of severe insomnia. One of the more interesting uses is in the treatment of certain kinds of warts and some skin disorders.

Hypnosis is very effective in the control of pain. Children with leukemia, for example, must undergo a painful procedure to obtain bone-marrow specimens to assess their condition. With hypnosis you can relieve the anxiety associated with the anticipation of pain and help these children to tolerate this procedure relatively comfortably.

Hypnosis is not very effective in treating disorders of self-control. It won't make you do something that you can do voluntarily if you put your mind to it - but that you really don't want to do for a variety of conscious and subconscious reasons.

In getting people to stop smoking, the success rate with hypnosis has not been dramatic. It's more a help in controlling the discomfort associated with quitting rather than in quitting itself. For people trying to lose weight, hypnosis is only moderately and occasionally effective. For control of drugs and alcohol, hypnosis is virtually useless. In most cases of alcohol and drug abuse, there are complex psychological reasons that prevent the mind from responding to hypnotic suggestions for self-control. Finally, hypnosis has very little use in the major psychoses. It is rarely, if ever, the treatment of choice for severe depressions, mania or schizophrenia.

 

ENGLISH-RUSSIAN DICTIONARY

А

 

ability                            способность

ability test                    тест (для оценки) способностей

abnormal behavior      аномальное поведение

abnormal personality  психопатия, расстройство личности

action                            действие

active imagination       активное воображение

activity                           1. деятельность; активность

2. занятие; занятия; деятельность

activity drive               влечение к деятельности

activity need                потребность в деятельности

acuity                           острота (ощущения)

ada ptation                    адаптация

adaptive be havior        адаптивное поведение

adequate stimulus       адекватный раздражитель

a djustment                   приспособление; приспособленность

adolescent                    психология подросткового возраста

affect                               аффект; чувство, эмоция;

состояние аффекта

affectation                     аффектация, наигрыш

affect-charged               аффектированный,

сопровождаемый аффектом (об идеях, образах и т.п.)

affection                         1. аффекция, аффективный процесс 2. аффективная сфера, сфера аффективных процессов; 3. привязанность, расположение

affective disorder         аффективное расстройство

affective experience      аффективное переживание

affective personality    аффективная психопатия,

аффективная личность

affective tone                аффективный тон, чувственный тон, чувственная окраска (переживания)

a nger                              гнев

a nguish                          мука, страдание; тоска

annoyer                          неприятный раздражитель

anxiety                           тревога, тревожность,

anxiety-proneness        склонность к тревоге

anxiety tolerance           способность переносить тревогу

applied psychology       прикладная психология

aptitude                         способность, годность

aptitude test                  тест (для оценки) специальной способности, тест (для проверки) годности

attribution                      атрибуция

audition                         слух; слушание, выслушивание, прослушивание

auditory acuity             острота слуха

autism                            аутизм

aversion                         отвращение

avoidance behavior     поведение избегания

awareness                      сознание; восприятие, ощущение; знание, осведомленность

a w e                                 благоговейный страх, трепет,

 

В

 

background                   фон

basic need                      первичная потребность;

фундаментальная потребность

behaver                          субъект поведения

behavior                        поведение

behavioral                     поведенческий, бихевиоральный

behavioral genetics     генетика поведения

behaviorism                  бихевиоризм

behavior sample          образец поведения

being need                    потребность бытия

belief                              1. убеждение

2. вера; верование; поверье

bias                                 1. пристрастие, предубеждение, предвзятость

2. смещение, систематическая ошибка

3. необъективность исследователя; искажающее влияние

binocular cue                 бинокулярный признак

(в зрительном восприятии глубины)

bipolar affective disorder биполярное аффективное расстройство

blame avoidance          потребность избегать осуждения

need blamescape need  потребность уходить от осуждения

bodily me                      телесное Я

body concept                образ тела

brainstorming              «мозговой штурм»

brainwashing               «промывка мозгов»

brightness                      яркость

 

С

 

capacity                          способность, возможность

case history                   данные клинического наблюдения; история болезни

character                        1. (отличительный) признак,

свойство, характеристика; 2. характер

character formation     1. формирование характера

2. склад характера; 3. личностная структура

check list                        1. контрольный список

2. вопросник

child-parent fixation   фиксация ребенка на родителе

child psychology         детская психология

clairvoyance                  ясновидение

class-free test                тест, свободный от классовой

предвзятости, беспристрастный тест

clouding of                  помрачение сознания; оглушенность

cluster                             группа

coercion                         принуждение

cogitation                      1. размышление, обдумывание; 2. акт мышления; 3. способность мышления; 4. мысль, идея

cognition                       1. познание; познавательный

(или когнитивный) процесс; 2. знание, продукт познания

cognitive need              познавательная потребность

cognitive psychology  когнитивная психология

collective unconscious  коллективное бессознательное

color perception           восприятие цвета

common trait                всеобщая черта;

распространенная черта

comparative psychology сравнительная психология

compatible                    совместимый

compensation               компенсация (одной функции другой)

concept formation       формирование понятий

concrete attitude          конкретная установка

concrete intelligence   конкретный (или практический) интеллект

conditional reflex        условный рефлекс

conditioned response  условный ответ, условная реакция

conjecture                      догадка, предположение

conscious                       1. сознательный, сознаваемый, осознанный; 2. сознающий (о человеке); сознаваемый (об объекте или ситуации);3. ознательный (о состоянии); пребывающий в сознании (о человеке)

4. сознательный, относящийся к сознанию, психический

5. (психоан.) the conscious — сознание

consciousness               сознательность, сознательный

характер; сознание

convergent thinking    конвергентное мышление

conversion hysteria     конверзионная истерия

 

conversion of affect ( ncuхоан.) превращение (или конверзия) аффекта

 

coping behavior           практическое поведение,

совладающее поведение

correlate                         устанавливать соотношение

correlation                     взаимосвязь

covert                            скрытый

covert behavior            скрытое поведение

covert need                    скрытая потребность

covert speech                скрытая артикуляция

co-worker                      сотрудник

 

D

 

day dreaming               грезы

day residues ( психоан .)  дневные остатки, остатки дневных впечатлений

death instinct (психан.)  инстинкт смерти, влечение

к смерти

decision making          принятие решений

delusion                         бред

denial (психоан.)           отвержение

dependency                  зависимость

depression                     депрессия

description                    описание

desire                              желание; вожделение

developmental stage   стадия развития

deviant behavior          девиантное (или отклоняющееся от нормы) поведение

diagnostic test               диагностический тест

discriminability            различимость

disinhibition                 растормаживание

displaced aggression    смещенная агрессия displacement of affect  смещение аффекта

disposition                     1. тенденция, склонность

2. расположение духа, настроение; 3. нрав; 4. (мн. число) задатки

disruptive                      подрывающий

dissociation                   диссоциация

distance cue                  признак удаленности

distraction                     отвлечение; отвлекающее впечатление; отвлекающий раздражитель

drive                               влечение, стимул

drive reduction             спад (или ослабление, или снижение интенсивности) влечения

drive-reduction theory  теория спада влечения

drive state                      состояние наличия влечения, мотивирующее состояние

 

E

 

echoic memory             эхоическая память

ecstasy                            экстаз

e go                                  мое «Я», эго

ethology                         этология (биология поведения)

evidence                         данные, доказательства

excitatory potential excitement потенциал возбуждения

existential f rustration  экзистенциальная фрустрация

expectation                    ожидание, экспектация

experience                      переживание; переживаемое; опыт

exploratory behavior   исследовательское поведение expressive behavior    экспрессивное (или выразительное поведение

extraversion                  экстраверсия; экставертность

extravert                          экстраверт

extrinsic motivation     внешняя мотивация

 

F

 

faculty                          способность

faculty psychology       психология способностей

family therapy             семейная терапия

fantasy                           фантазия

fatigue                            утомление

fear                                 страх, боязнь

flight into illness         бегство в болезнь (психоан.)

floating affect               несвязанный аффект (психоан.)

focal need                      сосредоточенная потребность

following reaction       реакция следования

forensic psychology    судебная психология

forgetting                      забывание

free - floating anxiety     несвязанная тревога

frequency method        метод частот (психофиз.)

Freudism                        фрейдизм

Frustration                     фрустрация

 

 

G

 

general psychology     общая психология

genetic psychology      генетическая психология

gifted                              одаренный

goal                                 цель

goa l gradient goal object  градиент цели, целевой объект, цель

goal orientation            ориентация на цель,

целевая ориентация

gregariousness             стадность; общительность

group cohesion             (внутри) групповая сплоченность

group mind                   групповое сознание

growth motivation       мотивация роста

growth need                  потребность роста

gustatory                        вкусовой

 

Н

 

habit                               привычка;

habituation                   привыкание

hallucination                галлюцинация

halo effect                      эффект ореола, гало-эффект

hearing                           слух

hedonic tone                 гедоническая окраска (переживания)

herd instinct                   стадный инстинкт

hoarding character       накопительский тип характера

holistic approach         холистический (ил и целостный) подход

hunger drive                 голод, влечение к пище hypnosis                        гипноз

hysteria                          истерия

hysterical personality  истерическая психопатия,

истерическая личность

 

I

 

identity crisis                кризис самоопределения

identity formation       самоопределение (процесс)

ideomotor act                идеомоторный акт

illusion                           иллюзия

implicit                          подразумеваемый, скрытый

impression                    впечатление

imprinting                     импринтинг, запечатление

impulse                          импульс, позыв

impulsive act                импульсивный акт

impulsiveness              импульсивность, опрометчивость

inadequate personality  несостоятельная личность

inadequate stimulus   неадекватный раздражитель

incentive                        побудитель

incentive value             побудительная ценность

incomplet e sentenc e test  тест на завершение предложений

innate                             врожденный

inner speech                  внутренняя речь

insentive                        стимул

insight                            1. прозрение, озарение, инсайт; 2. проницательность

inspiration                    вдохновение; озарение, наитие

instigator                       подстрекатель

instinct                           инстинкт

instinctive activity       инстинктивная деятельность

instinctive behavior    инстинктивное поведение

instinctoid (need)        инстинктоид, инстинктоподобная потребность

instinctual drive           инстинктивное влечение

instinctual object         объект инстинкта

institutional behavior  институциональное поведение

intellect                          интеллект

intellectual maturity   интеллектуальная зрелость

intelligence                   интеллект, умственные

способности, умственное развитие

intelligence level         уровень умственного развития, уровень интеллекта

intrinsic motivation    внутренняя мотивация,

внутренние побудители

introjection (психоан.)  интроекция

introspection                интроспекция, самонаблюдение

introversion                  интроверсия

intuition                         интуиция

intuitive type                интуитивный тип

invasion                         вторжение

inviolacy need              потребность в неприкосновенности

involuntary actions     непроизвольные действия

irrational functions     иррациональные функции

irrational type               иррациональный тип

irreality level                уровень нереальности

 

 

К

 

key stimulus                  ключевой раздражитель

kinesthesis                    кинестезия (ощущения от собственных движений и относительного положения

частей своего тела)

knowledge                    1. знание, знания;

2. познание

knowledge of results  знание результатов

key stimulus                ключевой раздражитель

 

L

 

lag of sensation            задержка ощущения

language acquisition   овладение языком

 lapse of memory          провал в памяти

latency ( period )            1. (психоан.) период скрытой сексуальности, латентный период 2. = latent period

latent period (психофиз.) скрытое содержание (т.е. неосознаваемое) латентное научение латентный период law of precision за кон отчетливости

lay analysis                    психоанализ, практикуемый лицом без медицинского образования

learned ability              приобретенная способность learned helplessness   усвоенная беспомощность learning                        научение

learning curve            кривая научения

legal psychology          судебная психология

level of anticipation    уровень ожиданий

level of aspiration        уровень притязаний level of consciousness           уровень сознания

life space                        жизненное пространство

 

М

 

maladjustment             плохая приспособляемость;

неприспособленность

manifest content          явное содержание (сознания)

manifest need               явная потребность

masculine protest        мужской протест

masculinity                   мужественность, мужские черты характера

mastery motive             мотив достижения мастерства

mastery test                   тест овладения навыками

matched groups            уравненные (или сопоставимые) группы

maternal behavior       материнское поведение

maternal drive              материнское влечение

maternal instinct          материнский инстинкт, инстинкт

maturation                     созревание

mature personality      зрелая личность

mazes (test)                   (тест) «лабиринт»

meaning                         значение, смысл

memorizing                  запоминание

memory                          память; воспоминание

memory span                объем памяти

memory trace                след в памяти

mental                            психический, душевный; сознательный, ментальный; умственный

mental abilities            умственные способности

mental age                     умственный возраст

mental conflict             внутрипсихический конфликт

mental content              содержание сознания

mental deficiency         умственная недостаточность

mental disorder            психическое (или душевное)

расстройство

mind                               1. психика; 2. сознание;

3. ум, разум; 4. склад ума

mind-body problem    психофизическая проблема

(взаимоотношения души и тела)

mislead                          вводить в заблуждение

missing-parts test         тест на восполнение недостающих деталей

mnemonic device         мнемонический прием

modality                        модальность (ощущения)

monocular cue              монокулярный признак

(при зрительном восприятии глубины)

mood                              настроение

morale                            моральное состояние, моральный дух

moral development     нравственное развитие

moral faculty                способность морального суждения

motivation                     мотивация

motivation research     изучение мотивации

motive                            1. движущий; двигательный; побудительный; 2. мотив

motive to avoid failure  мотив избегания неудачи

motor skills                   двигательные навыки

multiple personality   расщепление личности,

множественное сознание

 

N

 

nature-nurture problem проблема сравнительной роли наследственности и среды

nee d                                потребность

neurosis                         невроз

neuroticism                   невроз

neurotic                          1. невротический;

2. невротик; 3. неврастеник

nightmare                      (ночной) кошмар

noise                               шум

nurturance need           потребность опекать

nurture                           воспитание

nutriance need              потребность в пище и питье

 

О

 

object perception         восприятие предмета

observation                   наблюдение

observational learning  научение через наблюдение

obsession                       навязчивая идея; навязчивость, навязчивое состояние

occupational                 профессиональный

occupational test          профессиональный тест

(т.е. на профессиональные качества)

oculogyral illusion      глазодвигательная иллюзия

omnibus test                 тест с перетасованными заданиями

olfactory                          обонятельный

organic need                 органическая потребность

organ inferiority          неполноценность органа

organismic psychology  организмическая психология

orienting reflex            ориентировочный рефлекс

orienting response       ориентировочная реакция

overlap                            наложение

overlearning                  избыточное научение

 

Р

 

pain                                 боль; страдание

parapsychology            парапсихология

peak experience           пиковое, или вершинное

переживание

penis envy ( психоан.)  зависть к обладателям пениса

perception                     восприятие, перцепция

perceptual constancy  константность восприятия

performance                  исполнение, выполнение,

деятельность

personality                    личность, особенности характера

personality disorder    расстройство личности

personality inventory  личностный вопросник

personal unconscious  личное бессознательное

(ср . collective unconscious,)

phallic stage ( психоан . )  фаллическая стадия

pleasure                         удовольствие

practical intelligence    практический интеллект

preconscious  (психоан.)  предсознательный

predictive value           прогностическая ценность,

прогностическая сила (теста)

predominant idea        сверхценная идея

prejudice                       предрассудок, предубеждение

pregnant figure            прегнантная фигура

preoperational stage    предоперационная стадия

primacy effect               эффект первичности

primary drive                первичное влечение

primary mental abilities  первичные умственные

способности

primary motivation     первичная мотивация

primary need                первичная потребность

problem solving           решение проблем

procedure                      методика проведения

(опыта, исследования...)

productive character    продуктивный тип характера

projection (психоан.)    проекция

projective techniques  проективные (или прожективные) методики, проективные тесты

propensity                 склонность, наклонность,

предрасположение

proximity                       близость (пространственная)

psyche                            1. психика; 2. психика, психея

psychedelic                   психоделический

psychic                           1. психический, душевный

2. парапсихический; 3. психогенный, функциональный

psychic contagion         психическая зараза; психическая эпидемия, массовое поветрие psychoanalysis              психоанализ

psychoanalyst                психоаналитик

psychodrama                 психодрама

psyehodynamic             психодинамический

psychogenie                   1. психогенный; 2. психогенетический

psycholinguistics          психолингвистика

psychological                 психологический

psychological barrier  психологический барьер

psychological climate  психологический климат

psychological field       психологическое поле

psychological me          психологическое Я

psychological motive  психологический мотив

psychological test         психологический тест

psychological type        психологический тип

psychological warfare  психологическая война

psychology                     психология

psychometrics               1. психометрия, психометрика; 2. измерение в психологии

psychosis                       психоз

psychosomatic illness  психосоматическое заболевание

psychotherapy              психотерапия

public opinion              общественное мнение

punishment                  наказание

 

Q

 

questionnaire               анкета, вопросник

 

R

 

rapport                           контакт (в отношениях между исследователем и испытуемым);контактность

rating                               оценка, рейтинг

rational functions ( of consciousness ) рациональные функции сознания

rationalization              1. рациональное осмысление;

reaction time                 время реакции

reactive inhibition       реактивное торможение

reality level                    уровень реальности

reality principle(психоан.) принцип реальности

receptive character        рецептивный тип характера

receptor                           рецептор

receding                          перекодирование

recognition                     узнавание, опознание

reconstruction               воссоздание

reflex                              рефлекс

regression                      1. регресс, попятное движение, обратное развитие; 2. (психоан.) регрессия

3. прогрессирующая амнезия, обратный ход памяти»

rehearsal                        повторение (при запоминании)

reinforcement                подкрепление

rein f o rceme n t schedul e  режим подкрепления

reinf orcer                      подкрепляющий стимул

retention                        сохранение (в памяти)

retrieval                         поиск (информации в памяти)

reward                            вознаграждение

rigidity                           ригидность

root conflict (психоан.)  первичный конфликт

Rorschach inkblot test  тест Роршаха

S

 

satiation                         насыщение

satisfaction                    удовлетворение; удовлетворенность

satisfier                          источник удовлетворения

saturation                      насыщенность (цвета)

scholastic                       тест для оценки успеваемости

scholastic aptitude       тест способности к учению

school psychologist     школьный психолог

score                               результат (измерения); значение (измеряемой величины); оценка; балл; (мн.ч.) данные

secondary drive            вторичное влечение

secondary motivation  вторичная мотивация

secondary need            вторичная потребность

secondary                      вторичное подкрепление

security                          1. безопасность; обеспеченность; 2. уверенность, неозабоченность

selective answer test     тест с заданными вариантами ответов

selective attention        избирательное внимание

self                                  Я; сам

self-abasement             самоуничижение

self-acceptance             самоприятие

self-actualization         самоактуализация ( самореализация )

self-administering test  тест для самостоятельного

применения

self-alienation              самоотчуждение, отчуждение

собственного Я

self-analysis                  самоанализ

self-appraisal                самооценка

self-assertion                самоутверждение

self-assessment            самооценка

self-control                    самообладание, самоконтроль

self-denial                     самоотречение

self-expression             самовыражение

self-esteem                    чувство собственного достоинства, самолюбие

selfhood                         индивидуальность, личность, самость (качество)

self-ideal                        идеальный образ себя, идеал -Я

self-idealization           самоидеализация

self-image                      самовыражение, представление о самом себе

self-perception             самовосприятие

self-realization             самореализация

semantic memory        семантическая память

sensation                       ощущение

sensation type              ощущающий тип

sense                               чувство, ощущение

sense quality                  качество ощущения, = modality

sensibility                     чувствительность, способность к ощущению

sensitivity                      чувствительность; чуткость, сензитивность

sensory                           сенсорный

sensory acuity               острота ощущения

sensory adaptation      сенсорная адаптация

sensory memory           сенсорная память

sex role                           половая роль

sex-role identification  полоролевая идентификация

sexual behavior            половое поведение

sexual identity              половая идентичность; половое само-сознание

sexual instinct              половой инстинкт

sexual need                   половая потребность

shame                             стыд

sight                                зрение

sign                                 знак

 

smell                               1. запах; 2. обоняние

social adaptation          социальная адаптация

social attitude               социальная установка

social character             социальный характер

social drive                    социальное влечение

social intelligence        социальные способности, социальный интеллект

social interest                социальный интерес

socialization                  социализация

social learning              социальное научение

social maturity              социальная зрелость

social need                    социальная потребность

social perception          социальное восприятие

social psychology        социальная психология

social role                      социальная роль

social skills                   навыки общения, пространственное восприятие

soul                                 душа

source trait                    глубинная черта

stimulus                         раздражитель, стимул

 stimulus intensity         интенсивность стимула

stimulus - response        психология стимулов-реакций

stimulus-response relation  связь «стимул-реакция»

storage   (со) хранение (в памяти)

stream of consciousness  поток сознания

stress                               стресс, напряжение

strive for superiority   стремление к превосходству

structural psychology  структур (аль)ная психология

style of life                    стиль жизни

subgoal                          промежуточная цель

subject                            1. субъект; 2. испытуемый;

3. предмет (исследования и т.д.)

sublimation (психоан.)  сублимация

subliminal                     подпороговый, сублиминальный

subservient                   подчиненный, раболепный

subsequent                    последующий

substitute                        заменитель

succorance need            потребность в опеке

suggestibility                 внушаемость

suggestion                      внушение, суггестия

survey test                      тест-обследование

symbolic process          знаковый (ил и символический) процесс

 

T

 

tactual sense                  осязание

telepathy                        телепатия

temperament                 темперамент

tension                            напряжение

testee                              тестируемый, испытуемый (в тесте)

tester                               тестировщик

test form                        вариант теста

testimonial                    характеристика

testing                            1. испытание, опробование (инструмента и т.п.); 2. тестирование

test item                         задание теста

test manual                    руководство по применению теста

test paper                       протокол теста

test specifications        спецификации теста

test taking                      участие в тесте

texture gradient            градиент текстуры

t hanatos (психоан.)     инстинкт смерти, тана-тос

thinking                         мышление

thinking type                мыслительный тип

thought                          мысль

threshold                       порог (ощущения)

threshold stimulus      пороговый раздражитель

time sense                       чувство времени

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon феномен «кончика языка»

 

U

 

ultimate                         окончательный

 

V

 

validate                          утверждать

verbal                             устный

verbal response            вербальная реакция

verbal test                      вербальный тест

verbal thinking            вербальное мышление

vigilance                        бдительность, вигильность

vision                             зрение

visualization                 визуализация, зрительное воображение

vocational aptitude      профессиональная пригодность

vocational aptitude test   тест (или проверка) профпригодности

volition                          воля; волевой акт; волевая сфера

volitional                       волевой, волеизъявительный

vulnerable personality  ранимая личность

 

W

 

wakefulness                  бодрствование

warm-up effect             эффект врабатывания

will                                 воля

will to power                воля к власти

wish fulfillment           воображаемое исполнение желаний

wish ful  thinking        мышление, руководимое желанием (а не логикой и фактами)

w ithdrawal                    уход в себя, замыкание в себе

 

Unit1. OUR UNIVERSITY

Oral topic

OUR UNIVERSITY

Brest State University named after Alexander Pushkindates back from 1945 when on the 15th of March the regional government decided to open the Teacher's Training Institute in Brest. In October of the same year the first 14 students entered the building in Soviet street where the hospital had been housed before.In 1995 it became a university. Its full name is Brest State University.

The University occupies several academic buildings: an old building at the crossing of Savetskaya and Mickevich Streets, the Sports Complex with gymnasiums, a swimming pool, several lecture halls and tutorial rooms, and a seven-storied building in Kasmanautau Boulevard with a canteen, a library, reading halls, laboratories, lecture halls and subject rooms. At the disposal of students there are four hostels, a winter garden, a garden of successive blossoming, and an agricultural and biological station. The University has three museums: of biology, of geology, and of physical culture and sport. The library and reading rooms of the University contain more that 700,000 books.

 There are 11 faculties at the University: Language and Literature, Foreign Languages, Psychology and Pedagogics, Social Pedagogics, Geography, Biology, Physics-Mathematics, Physical Education and Sports, History, Law, and Pre-University Preparation. Students are educated in more than 20specialties.

Teaching is maintained at a high level. About 500 professors, associate professors and tutors teach students at the University.

The course of study lasts four-five years. Each year consists of two terms (autumn and spring) with examination periods at the end of each term. The term is divided between theoretical and practical work: students have a few weeks of lectures followed by seminars. When students have seminars they spend a lot of time in the reading room revising the material, fortunately the Internet helps now a lot.

The University has its own postgraduate course, opened in 1991. At present 25 postgraduate students have been carrying out research work in 15 specialties under the supervision of distinguished Masters and Doctors of Sciences.

At Brest State University a great number of students are engaged in various forms of research work under the supervision of qualified specialists. This work contributes to the solution of current problems and helps them learn more about their future work and the sciences j they study at the University. They hold scientific conferences at the University, take part in republican ones and publish their scientific articles. Scientific work develops a spirit of independence in the students, helps them to understand the requirements of national economy, to design different devices, to write term-papers and diploma theses, and most important, to see the results of their labor being put into practice.

 

Exercise 1. Match the words and their definitions

1. University	a. lodgings for students;
2. Thesis	b. an educational institution offering undergraduate and graduate degrees in a variety of academic areas;
3. Student	c. a faculty member of the highest rank in a university;
4. Hostel	d. a scientific or scholarly investigation;
5. Research	e. a speech on a specific subject, delivered to an audience for information or instruction;
6. Lecture	f. a paper written by a student that develops an idea or point of view;
7. Professor	g. a person who studies at a university.