1. Before you read Text 4A “The Practice of Science”, discuss these questions with your groupmates or teacher.

 a) What is scientific research?

 b) What scientifi c methods do you know?

 c) What are they characteristic of?

 d) What does the choice of research methods depend on?

 e) Are research methods interconnected?

 f) How can scientific theories be strengthened?

 2. Read and translate Text 4A. The Active Vocabulary List following the Text may be helpful. Find out if your answers are right or wrong. Use the introductory phrases given in Unit 1.

Text 4A. The practice of science

 When some people think of science, they think of formulas and facts to memorize. Many of us probably studied for a test in a science class by memorizing the names of the four nucleotides in DNA (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine) or by practicing with one of Newton’s laws of motion, like f = ma (force equals mass times acceleration). While this knowledge is an important part of science, it is not all of science. In addition to a body of knowledge that includes formulas and facts, science is a practice by which we pursue answers to questions that can be approached scientifi cally. This practice is referred to collectively as scientifi c research and while the techniques that scientists use to conduct research may differ between disciplines, the underlying principles and objectives are similar. Whether you are talking about biology, chemistry, geology, physics, or any other scientifi c fi eld, the body of knowledge that is built through these disciplines is based on the collection of data that is then analysed and interpreted in light of other research fi ndings. How do we know about adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine? These were not revealed by chance, but through the work of many scientists collecting data, evaluating the results, and putting together a comprehensive theory that explained their observations.

 Scientific research is a robust and dynamic practice that employs multiple methods towards investigating phenomena, including experimentation, description, comparison, and modelling. Though these methods are described separately here, many of these methods overlap or are used in combination. For example, when NASA scientists purposefully slammed a 370 kg spacecraft named Deep Impact into a passing comet in 2005, the study had some aspects of descriptive research and some aspects of experimental research. Many scientifi c investigations largely employ one method, but different methods may be combined in a single study, or a single study may have characteristics of more than one method. The choice of which research method to use is personal and depends on the experiences of the scientists conducting the research and the nature of the question they are seeking to address. Despite the overlap and interconnectedness of these research methods, it is useful to discuss them separately to understand their principal characteristics and the ways they can be used to investigate a question.

 Experimentation. Experimental methods are used to investigate the relationship(s) between two or more variables when at least one of those variables can be intentionally controlled or manipulated. The resulting effect of that manipulation (often called a treatment) can then be measured on another variable or variables. The work of the French scientist Louis Pasteur is a classic example. Pasteur put soup broth in a series of fl asks, some open to the atmosphere and others sealed. He then measured the effect that the fl ask type had on the appearance of microorganisms in the soup broth in an effort to study the source of those microorganisms.

 Description. Description is used to gather data regarding natural phenomena and natural relationships and includes observations and measurements of behaviours. A classic example of a descriptive study is Copernicus’s observations and sketches of the movement of planets in the sky in an effort to determine if the Earth or the Sun is the orbital centre of those objects.

Comparison. Comparison is used to determine and quantify relationships between two or more variables by observing different groups that either by choice or circumstance are exposed to different treatments. Examples of comparative research are the studies that were initiated in the 1950s to investigate the relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer in which scientists compared individuals who had chosen to smoke of their own accord with nonsmokers and correlated the decision to smoke (the treatment) with various health problems including lung cancer. 

Modelling . Both physical and computer-based models are built to mimic natural systems and then used to conduct experiments or make observations. Weather forecasts are an example of scientifi c modelling that we see every day, where data collected on temperature, wind speed, and direction are used in combination with known physics of atmospheric circulation to predict the path of storms and other weather patterns.

These methods are interconnected and are often used in combination to fully understand complex phenomena. Modelling and experimentation are ways of simplifying systems towards understanding causality and future events. However, both rely on assumptions and knowledge of existing systems that can be provided by descriptive studies or other experiments. Description and comparison are used to understand existing systems and examine the application of experimental and modeling results in real-world systems. Results from descriptive and comparative studies are often used to confi rm causal relationships identified by models and experiments. While some questions lend themselves to one or another strategy due to the scope or nature of the problem under investigation, most areas of scientifi c research employ all of these methods as a means of complementing one another towards clarifying a specific hypothesis, theory, or idea in science. Scientific theories are clarified and strengthened through the collection of data from more than one method that generate multiple lines of evidence. Take, for example, the various research methods used to investigate what came to be known as the ozone hole [Carpi, Egger, 2008].

ACTIVE VOCABULARY LIST

pursue [pə′sju:] v — следовать, придерживаться намеченного плана; продолжать; заниматься (чем-л.)

vary [′veəri] v — менять, изменять, варьировать

various [′veəriəs] adj — различный, разный, разнообразный

variety [və′raiəti] n — разнообразие

variable [′veəriəb(ə)l] n adj — (мат.) переменная (величина); изменчивый, непостоянный, неустойчивый

finding [′faindiŋ] n — вывод, заключение; (pl.) полученные данные

reveal [ri′vi:l] v — показывать, обнаруживать; открывать

observe [əb′zə:v] v — наблюдать, следить; соблюдать, следовать (чему-л.); вести (научные) наблюдения

observation [,ɔbzə′vei∫(ə)n] n — наблюдение; соблюдение; (pl.) сведения, полученные путем наблюдений; результаты наблюдений, данные изучения или исследования

method [′meθəd] n — метод, способ

comparative method [kəm′pærətiv] — сравнительный метод

descriptive method [is′kriptiv] описательный метод

experimental method [ik,speri′mentl] — экспериментальный метод

modelling method [′mɔdliŋ] — метод моделирования

research method — научно-исследовательский метод

apply [ə′plai] / employ a method — применять метод

overlap [,əuvə′læp] v — частично пoкрывать, заходить один на другой, перекрывать; частично совпадать

measure [′meʒə] — n v мера; степень; измерять, иметь размеры

measurement [′meʒəmənt] n — размер, измерение

relation [ri′lei∫(ə)n] n — отношение, связь, зависимость

relationship [ri′lei∫(ə)n∫ip] n — (взаимо)отношения, соотношение

quantity [′kwɔntiti] n — количество

quantify [′kwɔntifai] v — определять количество, выражать количество, представлять в количественной форме

quality [′kwɔliti] n — качество, свойство; признак, особенность

cause [kɔ:z] n v — причина, основание; быть причиной, служить поводом, вызывать, причинять

causal [′kɔ:z(ə)l] adj — причинный, выражающий причинную связь

causality [kɔ:′zæliti] n — причинность, причинная обусловленность

rely (on) [ri′lai] v — полагаться, надеяться; доверять

assume [ə′sju:m] v — предполагать, допускать; принимать

assumption [ə′sΛmp∫(ə)n] n — предположение, допущение, исходное положение confirm [kən′fə:m] v — подтверждать

confirmation [,kɔnfə′mei∫(ə)n] n — подтверждение, доказательство

solve [sɔlv] v — решать, разрешать

solution [sə′lu:∫(ə)n] n — решение, разрешение

scope [′skəup] n — пределы, рамки, границы (возможностей, знаний, понимания и т.п.); масштаб, поле (деятельности)

investigate [in′vestigeit] v — исследовать, изучать; рассматривать

investigation [in,vesti′gei∫(ə)n] n — (научное) исследование, изыскание, изучение; рассмотрение

carry out an investigation — проводить исследовательскую работу (изыскания) equal [′i:kwəl] adj — одинаковый, равный

equality [i′kwɔliti] n — равенство

treat [tri:t] v — относится; рассматривать; трактовать; обрабатывать

treatment n — трактовка, обсуждение, исследование; обработк

determine [di′tə:min] v — определять; обусловливать

3. Complete the following sentences with details from the Text.

1. Scientific knowledge includes facts, formulas, and _______ .

2. The scientific methods are applied in __________________ .

3. ____________ is the resulting effect of the manipulation of some variables.

4. A classic example of using descriptive methods is ________ .

5. An example of using modeling methods is ______________ .

6. Experimental and modeling methods rely on _____________ and _____________ of existing systems.

4. Locate the following details in the Text. Give the line numbers.

1. In which lines does the author explain the structure of scientific knowledge?

2. Where in the Text does the author fi rst mention different types of research methods?

3. At what point in the Text does the author discuss the example of overlapping some scientifi c methods?

4. Where in the Text does the author explain the use of descriptive and comparative methods in combination?

 5. Underline the detail that is NOT mentioned in the Text in each of the sentences below.

1. The objectives, results and underlying principles of scientifi c techniques are similar.

2. A descriptive method includes some variables to be controlled, observations, and measurements of behaviours.

3. The results of descriptive and comparative methods often confirm causal relationships determined by models, experiments, and description.

6. Answer the following detail questions.

1. According to the Text, how do we know about adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine? a) by chance b) through the work of many scientists c) by collecting some data

2. According to the Text, a single scientific investigation may have characteristics of a) one method. b) many methods. c) more than one method.

3. According to the Text, a descriptive method is applied to collect data concerning a) the relationships between two or more variables. b) mimic natural systems. c) natural phenomena and natural relationships.

4. According to the Text, what did the scientists studying the relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer compare? a) smokers and non-smokers b) health problems and lung cancer c) smokers and those who gave up smoking

5. According to the Text, modeling and experimental methods help to understand a) complex phenomena. b) causality and future events. c) existing systems.

7. Underline or mark the main ideas of the Text and retell it in English.