Apart from the above mentioned basic rules, there are further aspects that you should keep in mind, for example:
- main clauses connected with and / but
- tense of the introductory clause
- reported speech for difficult tenses
- exeptions for backshift
- requests with must, should, ought to and let’s
ADDENDUM II
WRITING INSTRUCTIONS MATERIALS
How to render an Article
How to summarize an Article
Summarizing a journal article is the process of highlighting and presenting a focused overview of completed research studies. A journal article summary provides potential readers with a short descriptive commentary, giving them some insight into the article's focus.
Writing and summarizing a journal article is a common task for college students during their several years of study. Completing a journal article summary requires skill and practice. Here are some helpful hints and suggestions for developing your expertise in summarizing a journal article.
Steps :
1. Read the initial abstract located at the very beginning, which is usually in the form of a short paragraph. The abstract is a short summary of the content of the journal article that will provide you with important highlights of the research study.
2. Scan and continue reading through the various segments of the journal article, highlighting main points discussed by the authors. Focus on key concepts and ideas that have been proposed.
3. Realize that separate areas of focus within a journal article generally include sub-section titles that target a specific step or development during the course of the research studies. The titles for these sub-sections are usually bold and are in a larger font than the remaining text.
Circle or highlight each individual portion of the journal article, focusing on the sub-section titles. These segments will usually include an introduction, methodology, research results and a conclusion in addition to a listing of references.
4. Continue the process by creating a rough draft for summarizing a journal article. You will be writing several, short paragraphs that summarize each separate portion of the journal article.
5. Show the relationships among the ideas presented by the authors within the journal article. The primary objective of the summary is to present a brief overview of the authors' essential points to the reader.
6. Refrain from using direct quotations of text from the journal article. Quotations are more often used when writing a college paper and not a journal article summary. Focus more on paraphrasing the ideas when writing a journal article summary without losing focus of their meaning and intended content.
7. Start by focusing on the introduction. This section briefly discusses the focus of the research study and what the targeted objectives were for conducting the research.
8. Move on by discussing the methodology used by the authors. This portion discusses the research tools and methods used during the study.
9. Write a brief overview of their research results and what the authors accomplished as a result of their work. Were the authors successful and did they meet their objectives for conducting the research?
10. Conclude in discussing closing statements made by the authors. This section usually focuses on what was accomplished and learned during the research and how the work may benefit others within the same field of study.
11. Review your rough draft. Go back and compare the focus and content of what you have written to see that it matches and supports the context of the journal article. A journal article that has been properly summarized provides potential readers with a short review, which is important when they are browsing and searching for specific information about a particular topic.
How to write a Speech
As you hang up the telephone, the icy fingertips of panic grip your stomach; your heart races. Your most recent project was delivered on time, within budget, and is approaching payback one year ahead of schedule. As a result, your Industry Association wants you to address their annual convention. Relax! They believe you have something to offer. Here are some steps to ease your palpitations. A good reader is most likely to be a good writer and speaker. Read as much as you can. Stay abreast with the happenings around.
Steps:
1. Remember that all great speeches, and even some not so great, require shape. The old saying is hard to beat: "Tell them what you will tell them; tell them; then tell them what you told them."
2. Remember to use ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade your audience. Use a good vocabulary, but not one that causes you to lose your connection with your audience.
3. “Shake hands” with the aud You have something worthy of being said. Former Ambassador Robert Strauss used to begin his addresses like this: "Before I begin this speech, I have something to say." This passage was always composed in a style that enabled him to reclaim a powerful tone for the instructive portion of his remarks. Put on your smile; calm your nerves, then get to work. You may want to start with a smashing one-liner or an anecdote.
4. Rise to the occasion. In other words, feel passionately about your topic. Recall old Uncle Ned's tear jerking toast at the wedding? Even ordinary folks can deliver great moments of oratory if they rise to the occasion. Make sure the audience feels how important the topic is to you, so that they begin to think about why they should care.
5. Build clear and sensible transitions (segues) from one thought to the next. The biggest mistake speakers and writers make is to assume people will follow their leaps of logic. Spell out to the audience when you are taking a turn in your thoughts with phrases like: "As an example of this" or "This brings us to the larger problem of," and so forth.
6. Focus. A "great" speech does not need to start out great and stay great to the finish. It engages the listeners. It makes allowances for a dip in interest in the middle. Then, it gathers anticipation for its key moment. John Stuart Mill, the political economist, defined the orator's art this way: "Everything important to his purpose was said at the exact moment when he had brought the minds of his audience into the state most fitted to receive it."
7. Add purpose. A speech should be made for a good reason. To inspire, to instruct, to rally, and to lead are noble purposes. To sound off, to feed a speaker's ego, to flatter, or to intimidate are not.
8. Know your theme. If you cannot answer the question "what do you want to say?" in a single, declarative sentence, do yourself and the audience a favor: decline the invitation.
9. Write with one particular person in mind, someone you actually know. This helps you to keep the message real and personable. This helps you anticipate reactions and keep your language down to earth.
10. Deliver the goods. Delivery is the essence of eloquence. It requires practice, discipline, drill, and timing. You can be your own trainer. As you develop self-confidence, you put the audience at ease, or make them sit up. Your eye is in contact with the people, not the page. If looking at people makes you nervous, look between them, at the clock on the back wall, over somebody's shoulder - as long as it seems you're making eye-contact. Your professional passion is contagious. Use gestures to emphasize points, and make sure your tone of voice and facial expressions are appropriate for the topic.
11. Illustrate. Illustrations can come in the form of slides, visuals, stories, jokes, or dramatic gestures. Your goal is to make some portion of the speech stick to the mind of the audience--if someone asks about it afterwards, they should say something like, 'I enjoyed the story Tom told about his sister,' or 'The pie chart of this year's earnings was helpful.'
12. Give your audience a sense of completion. Bring them back to the beginning, but with a louder spirit. This can be done by starting the last paragraph with a quiet, declarative sentence.
Tips:
- You may experience instant, sustained applause punctuated by the occasional "Bravo" and the ever-present pundit punk who wrinkles his brow and wonders aloud, "But what was really said?"
- Each person in the audience experiences your speech as an individual. Speak to them as individuals, by using words like "you" and "your" instead of "all of you" or "everybody here"; it is more direct and compelling, and will engage each member of your audience, whether it be five or five thousand.
- Focus your attention on one individual at a time, just as you would in normal, everyday conversation. This will help to relax you, and mitigate the fear of speaking to very large crowds. Shift your focus around the room, to different sections of your audience. By including every area, even when you might not be able see them individually, each person will feel as if you are speaking directly to them, not at them.
- Most speakers deal with the eye contact issue by twisting their body from side to side. They look from side to side as if watching a tennis match. Don't make this mistake. Make eye contact using comfortable, natural body and head movements with purposeful glances at different areas.
- Smile from time to time but refrain from grinning like an idiot.
- Consider your audience's frame of reference. A simple way to do it is to think about: Who's in the audience? Why are they here? And after hearing your speech what's the first thing you would like them to do or say to someone else perhaps?
- Don't read your speech. Speak it from memory. You may miss a couple minor points (and even a major one), but if you can't remember it long enough to say it, why would anyone else remember long enough to act on it?
- If you are not a seasoned speaker, it is fine to read your speech as long as your delivery isn't stilted and amateurish like a kid reading from a textbook. You may not have time for memorization. If not, don't be embarrassed to read your speech. Getting your message out counts the most. Look up and smile from time to time to let the audience know you haven't forgotten them.
- Almost everyone can remember an early experience when they were obsessed with memorization and suddenly drew a blank. It can derail a speech. Be comfortable with your subject and have the bullet points on a few 3x5 cards. Relax and don't be anal about flawless delivery; people probably won't hold it against you.
- Ronald Reagan had a rule that he would always carry a written copy of his speech in case something happened during the speech
- Use a dramatic pause to emphasize an important point. Stop talking for a second and look as if you are pondering your next words.
- Vary the speed of delivery and the loudness of your voice. Talk faster and louder when moving on to a new thought. Speak slowly and lower your voice for emphasis.
- Act as if you lived for this one speech your whole life.
- You can fight off stage fright and fear of failure by knowing your subject. Having a commanding knowledge of your topic will show in you, just like not knowing your topic will show-even more so.
- Practice your speech with someone else if possible, and ask him/her for input.
- People say "Thank you" to signal that, yes, the speech is over. It is a very weak ending to a speech. You really shouldn't thank the audience, any more than they should thank you. You have given the audience a significant experience and they have given you their polite (or enthusiastic) attention. Call it even.
- Let the final, forceful sentence be the natural ending of your speech. Signal the end simply by smiling and stepping away from the lectern or podium. If you didn't use a lectern (always a good idea), smile and wave, take a bow, or move to shake hands with someone to signal the end of your dazzling performance. The speech itself might have been a snore fest but at least you'll have a polished exit.
- If the speech is followed by questions/answers, it's OK to come BACK to the podium or front of the room when the applause dies down. You don't have to stay up there.
- If you are delivering a eulogy or some other solemn address, ditch the smile. Keep your voice and expression solemn and serious at all times. Just emulate a newscaster when they are bringing sad news.
- Legendary Actor Anthony Quinn used this technique to give him confidence before an audience.
- Imagine a ray of energy emanating from deep in the earth and radiating up through your heels, up your spine, and then throughout your body. Keep this image in the back of your mind as you deliver your lines (er, speech).
- If you have a lot of time to practice, you can develop some gestures. Gestures are better than keeping your hands in your pockets or folded with the fingers laced. However, if your gestures are awkward and distracting, keep your hands in your pockets.
- Watch JFK's inaugural address for pointers on gestures. JFK invented stabbing your closed hand forward while touching your thumb with your curved forefinger. Every major politician now uses that gesture.
- Think hard before incorporating flip charts or a dry-erase board into your presentation. For one thing, you don't want to poison the air with the dreadful fumes emitted by dry-erase markers. Eventually you will find yourself talking to your flip chart and not the audience. The audience will be distracted by your scribblings or watching you fumble with your exhibits.
Insecure speakers like stage props because they take the focus off them. Whatever best suits you.
- Who better to write your introduction than you? Before your speech, contact the person who will be introducing you and give them your introduction. Unless they are a total creepazoid, they will be thankful that you saved them the chore of drafting your introduction.
- Be conscious of ummms and ahhhs. Speakers use these as filler for pauses, to let people know they haven't finished their thought. They make you sound hesitant and unsure, however. Too many ummms and ahhhs get to be annoying.
It's OK to let silence intrude on your sentence. When you wean yourself of ummms, ahhhs, and y'knows you will be taking a big step toward effective public speaking. - Avoid a sing-song delivery, especially the mannerism known as "uptalk." Uptalk is ending sentences and phrases with a question mark. Not only is it annoying, It makes you sound immature. And very unsure of yourself, no one will be able to stand to listen to you.
- Start writing as if you are creating an essay or informative article. When you are comfortable with your draft, read it aloud. Listen to a recording. The style should be different than a typical essay or article. You can't have paragraphs that drone on. Rather than pack your talk with boring facts and figures, give them a handout (AFTER your talk). It's OK to repeat or revisit important points for emphasis.
- The type of event you attend will determine the length of your speech. Consider that the average speaker speaks 100 to 135 words per minute. Below are sample speech lengths:
- Standard keynote speaker: 18 - 22 minutes (est. 1800 to 2970 words)
- Motivator: 12 - 15 minutes (est. 1200 to 2025 words)
- Ceremonial speaker: 5 - 7 minutes (est. 500 to 945 words)
- News conference: 2 - 3 minutes (est. 200 to 405 words)
- Wedding toast: 2 - 3 minutes (est. 200 to 405 words)
How to write an Essay
There are many ways to write an essay. However, the standard essay form follows the same basic patterns as discussed in this `how to`.
Here`s How:
1. Select the topic of your essay.
2. Choose the central idea, or thesis, of your essay. For example: Information technology has revolutionized the way we work.
3. Outline your essay into introductory, body and summary paragraphs.
4. The introductory paragraph begins with an interesting sentence. For example: Home workers have grown from 150,000 to over 12 million in the past 5 years thanks to the wonders of the computer.
5. After this first sentence, add your thesis statement from above.
6. Use one sentence to introduce every body paragraph to follow. For example: The Internet has made this possible by extending the office into the home.
7. Finish the introductory paragraph with a short summary or goal statement. For example: Technological innovation has thus made the traditional workplace obsolete.
8. In each of the body paragraphs (usually two or three) the ideas first presented in the introductory paragraph are developed.
9. Develop your body paragraphs by giving detailed information and examples. For example: When the Internet was first introduced it was used primarily by scientists, now it is common in every classroom.
10. Body paragraphs should develop the central idea and finish with a summary of that idea. There should be at least two examples or facts in each body paragraph to support the central idea.
11. The summary paragraph summarizes your essay and is often a reverse of the introductory paragraph.
12. Begin the summary paragraph by quickly restating the principal ideas of your body paragraphs. For example: The Internet in the home, benefits and ease of use of modern computer systems...
13. The penultimate sentence should restate your basic thesis of the essay. For example: We have now passed from the industrial revolution to the information revolution.
14. Your final statement can be a future prediction based on what you have shown in the essay. For example: The next step: The complete disappearance of the workplace.
Tips:
1. Use strong verbs and avoid modals to state your opinion. It is better to write: The workplace has evolved than The workplace seems to have evolved
2. Do not apologize for what you are saying. An essay is about your opinion.
3. Do not translate from your mother tongue. It will quickly get you into trouble.
How to write an Annotation
An annotation is a brief summary of a book, article, or other publication. An abstract is also a summary, but there is a difference between the two. An abstract is simply a summary of a work, whereas the purpose of an annotation is to describe the work in such a way that the reader can decide whether or not to read the work itself. An annotated bibliography helps the reader understand the particular usefulness of each item. The ideal annotated bibliography shows the relationships among individual items and may compare their strengths or shortcomings.
The following points provide guidance for writing annotations. As appropriate each of these issues might be assessed and commented on in the annotation.
1. Qualifications of the author, unless very well known.
2. The scope and main purpose of the publication (e.g., book, article, web site).
3. The intended audience and level of reading difficulty.
4. The author's bias or assumptions, upon which the work's rationale rests.
5. The method of obtaining data or doing research.
6. The author's conclusions.
7. Comparison with other works on the same subject.
8. Materials appended to the work — e.g., maps, charts, photos, etc.
9. The work's importance or usefulness for the study of a subject.
Not all of these points are necessary for every annotation, and they certainly do not have to be noted in the order listed here, but they at least ought to be kept in mind when writing an annotation.
Abstract writing guidelines
What is an abstract? 
The abstract is a mini-version of the thesis. It should give a brief summary of the main sections of the paper. In other words, it is a summary of the "information" the thesis contains.
Its purpose:
To give readers a quick identification of the basic content of the thesis. It should "stand on its own" and be a self-contained document. There should be no need to look elsewhere in the thesis for an understanding of what is said in the abstract.
Length:
The abstract should be very concise - the maximum length being 50% of one page (outside of the header formatting and keywords line). This means you will need to economise your use of words and tie ideas together. Use the most precise and relevant words to best express the content of the abstract. Abstracts that are too long will have to be re-written.
Content:
The abstract can be written as one large paragraph, or for easy reading you can use paragraphs for each section of the content. Paragraph 1 should contain your objectives and scope, Paragraph 2 a description of the methods used, Paragraph 3 a summary of the results, and Paragraph 4 a statement of the main conclusions.
Other considerations:
The abstract is usually written in the past tense because the research is already
done. In other words, write the thesis first!
While first person ("I", "we") may be used in the body of your thesis, you must use third person (passive) in the abstract.
DO NOT include abbreviations or acronyms in your abstract if you can help it, but if you must, don't use them without explaining them first. For example, the first time you use the abbreviation you must write out the full form and put the abbreviation in brackets. e.g. "Chief Executive Officer (CEO)" From then on you may use "CEO" for the duration of the abstract.
DO NOT use headings for your abstract paragraphs. (e.g. Objectives, Methods, Results and Conclusions)
Keep your abstract clear and simple - you are trying to show the key points of your thesis to attract interest.
Always check your grammar, spelling, and formatting. Please use either British
English spelling conventions or American English spelling conventions throughout your abstract, but not both.
Remember: The abstract is the first thing a reader reads. It is an indication of the quality of your thesis and what is to come for the reader. Impressions drawn from the reading of the abstract greatly impact the reading of your thesis.
Using some of language samples below that; for example, introduce the different sections of the abstract, will help make the abstract easier to read and more clear to the reader. These are examples only - use must use the language correctly in the proper context and for the correct purpose.
Other words:
objective
aim
intention
purpose
goal
target
Objective(s)
The purpose of this study was to investigate... Another aim was to find out... Finally, ... was examined in the study.
Method(s)
(X) method was applied. (Eg. quantitative/qualitative - both/other?)
The study/survey/thesis/questionnaire/opinion poll...examined, inspected, focused on, was conducted, carried out, sent out, administered (see list of more descriptive verbs) Questionnaires were sent out/administered... ( X number) responses were received
Result(s)/Conclusion(s)
The results of the study were that... It was found/discovered that... The results revealed/indicated...
The principal conclusion was that... One conclusion was that...
Miscellaneous
Please note the correct singular and plural versions of the following:
Singular Plural
thesis theses
criterion criteria
phenomenon phenomena
appendix appendices (British English)
appendixes (American English)
Writing a Message
A message is a statement or set of statements that describes your work and why it is important. It should be written in clear, concise language that is easily understood by a wide range of people. Here, we provide a few tips on creating effective messages for your research.
- What is the benefit? You have committed your professional life to this work, but the rest of us have not. You have to create a context for your research that encourages people to care. How many people are affected by the disease you are studying? What is the cost to society? What is the pay-off for your hard work?
- Why is it important to you? Is there a personal reason why this matters? Describing this connection is often a good way to connect to an audience.
- Translate from scientific jargon to concrete, common language. Even in scientific audiences, colleagues are relieved to hear presentations or see posters that are presented clearly. And given the interdisciplinary focus of much of today’s research, “generalist” language will enable others outside your area of expertise to engage your work more effectively.
- Use metaphors and symbolic language to connect complex scientific concepts to commonly known images and processes. Is the neoplasm two centimeters wide or is the cancer the size of a dime?
- It is not enough to simply describe what you are doing. Often (indeed, almost always in research), the really exciting stuff is up ahead. What’s next? What do we hope to see from your research or from others in the coming months or years? Is there a call to action? If possible, describe what people in the audience can do to push this work ahead.
- Marshall a range of evidence. In a scientific presentation, you will need a clear, data-driven description of your research to back up your findings. But for non-scientific groups (and even for scientists to some extent), don’t forget to tell stories or provide anecdotes that support the case for why your work is important and how it is effective.
Дата: 2018-11-18, просмотров: 318.
