The Republic of Belarus was proclaimed as an independent state on July 27,1990 when the 12^th Supreme Soviet adopted the Declaration of the State Sovereignty. Belarus established diplomatic relations with many countries of the world (the 1^st country was Germany). It also developed economic & cultural cooperation with Poland, the Baltic states & Western Europe. By the early 90’s, the international status of Belarus was dual and, thus, uncertain. On one hand our republic was a founder state & a full member of the UNO & UNESCO & other international organizations. In fact, that there was no diplomatic representation in Minsk in 1991. This situation forced Belarus to make certain attempts to shape & pursue its own foreign policy. Belarus attained the international recognition & established diplomatic relations, opened diplomatic representative offices in the country & abroad. The main aims of the Belorussian foreign policy are to achieve real independence & sovereignty, to turn Belarus into nuclear free zone & neutral state. Nowadays Belarus is recognized by 123 countries & has diplomatic relations with 101 of them. Belarus opened 22 embassies & 5 consulates abroad.

           As an independent & sovereign state Belarus respects the principles on the international law. According to the international law & our Constitution Belarus carries out all agreements. Belarus has signed more than 150 interstate treaties in all spheres (diplomatic relations, disarmament, science & culture).

Topic 17: Great Britain
See also: Topic 8 - Popular Sports In Great Britain; Topic 19 – London , Topic 21 - Customs

 The United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles. It consists of 4 parts: England, Wales, Scotland & Northern Ireland. England, Scotland & Wales occupy the territory of Great Britain; Northern Ireland is situated in the Northern part of Ireland. The symbol of England is a red rose, the symbol of Scotland is a thistle. Daffodil is a symbol of Wales and shamrock and a red hand are Irish symbols. Flag of the United Kingdom is called “Union Jack” and includes details from all flags of member of the union. On the flag appear:

· The red cross of Saint George, for England, on the white gound;

· The white diaginal croos of Saint Andrew, for Scotland, on the blue ground;

· The red diagonal cross of Saint Patrick, for Ireland, on a white ground;

 Great Britain is an island. It lies off the northwestren coastline of Europe. The North Sea & the English channel separate Great Britain from the continent. The Straits of Dover, 18 miles wide, divide it from France. On the continent the country also borders on Belgum and Netherlands. It also borders on Ireland. The coastline is broken and has a few bays and excellent natural habours. Britain is a small beautiful and crowded country. The territory of the United Kingdom is about 244000 square miles, but it is one of the most densily populated countries in the world. The population is over 56,5 million. About 80% of the population is urban. The capital of the country is London.

Numerous historical and cultural places of interest on the territory of Great Britain remind of the tremendous past of the country. The first people who came here were Celtic tribes called Britons. It was is 800 BC. So, the name Britain is very old – Britain is the land of Britons. The name England was given to a part of the island at a later date. Later, in 54 BC Roman invaders of Julius Caesar came and stayed for two centuries. It is interesting to know that the Romans never managed to conquer the territory of Scotland. And they had to build the Great Roman Wall, to protect their camps in the Northern part of England. One can see this wall separating England from Scotland even now. The territory of Great Britain was conquered several times by German nomandic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes. These tribes conquered the major part of the island and formed here their kingdoms. But in 1066 Britain was conquered by Normans. Their leader united many kingdoms and formed England. His name was Wilhelm the Conqueror. Traditional English parliament appeared ffor the first time in 1265, so England became a monarchy. At that time England was one of the richest countries of Europe, so it was eager to widen its borders, that is why England played important role in European colonial expansion of thw 14^th-17^th centuries. For example it governed over part of the Caribbean region and part of Atlantic coast during exploration of America, large territories in modern India and Pakistan; Australia was also English colony. For a long time England was ‘Sovereign of the seas’. In 1603 King James VI of Scotland became King of England. In 1707 the Act of Union was passed. This Act made Scotland and England a united part, its name has been Great Britain since then, but the Scots kept their own legal system, religion and administrative systems and still keep them today.

The greater part of Ireland became the Irish Free State (Eire) in 19922. It was a part of the British Commonwealth for a time but remained neutral in the Second World War and became a republic in 1949. Meanwhile the six northern countries remained part of the United Kingdom.

In newspapers you often meet the word ‘Ulster”, which stands for Northern Ireland. Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland. The political system of Northern Ireland was always dominated by religion. The Protestant and Catholic communities have been mutually hostile for centuries. British troops were sent to Northern Ireland to keep order.

The separation of the six northern countries in 1922 was not readily accepted by the rest of Ireland and for a long time the “Irish Question” has been one of the major problems of British politics. Ruling over Northern Ireland becomes more and more difficult for the British government.

The surface of present day Great Britain still remains us of the heroic past of the country.

 Great Britain is one of the most beautiful island in the world. The surface of Great Britain varies greatly. You can find the fine combinations of low & high land, plains & mountains. The highest mountain’s top is Ben Nevis (Scotland, 1343 meters) and Snowdon .The geographical features of the island are comparatively small and a mountain 12000 feet high would be a horrible monster there as the Mississipi. The Northern part & the western part of the country is mountainous and is called the Highlands. All the rest (south-east & centre) is a vast plain, which is called the Lowlands. The mountains are not very high. The highest regions are in Scotland and in the North Wales. Here is a Lake district, which consists of 16 lakes or lochs as they call them. The largest ones are Loch-Ness (396 sq. km)and Loch-Earn (123 sq. km).

 There are many rivers in Great Britain. They are not long. The greatest rivers are: the Thames, the Severn and the Trent. The longest river is the Severn, about 200 miles (375 km). The Thames, which flows through rich agricultural districts into the North Sea, is the most important river in England. The Trent is the fastest .

 The South English plain is one of the most attractive places in Great Britain. It is not only beautiful, but the richest, the most fertile and that why the most populated in the country.

The climate of Great Britain is mild, the whole year round. The Atlantic Ocean and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream influence the weather of the British Isles. The English weather is not very good, but it’s certainly interesting, because it is very changeable: a fine morning may change into a wet afternoon. The summers are cool and rainy, it is not so hot in England as on the continent, there is much rain and fog in autumn & winter. October is usually the wettest month, July – the hottest and January – the coldest. All over the world Britain is notorous for its fogs. The ordinary damp mists which afflict all parts of the country from time to time are no worse than similar mists in many other countries. The smokefogs of the big towns which develop in winter- time whenever there is not enough wind to blow the smoke away are unhealthy and dangerous to movement. Much of smokefog was caused by the burning of coal in fireplaces in private houses, though smoke from factories contributes a great deal to the trouble. A Clean Air Act was passed by Parliament in 1956, giving local councils power to control smoke. An unusually thick smog in London in 1962 caused the death of some 4000 people.

The climate is different in different parts of the country: in the Scotland the climate is colder then in England, because the English weather changes so often, there always something to talk about, it is the favourite subject of conversation for Englishmen.

 Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. It is known as one of the largest productors & exporters of iron and steel products, machinery and electronics, chemicals and textile, aircrafts and navigation equipment. One of the chief industries of the country is shipbuilding.

 Wales is one of the big mining districts in Great Britain. In town and villages of Wales, you can see thousands of miners. The industrial England is chiefly in the midlands, with the largest cities of London, Birmingham, Coventry, Nottingham, Sheffield, Leeds. The two greatest centres of Scotland are Edinburg, Glasgow. Manchester is the cotton centre of Great Britain. London, Liverpool, Sauthghampton, Hall, Newcastle, Glasgo, Cardiff are the main ports

 Great Britain is not very rich in miner resources. It imports all of it's oil, cotton, rubber, 4/5 of it's mewl, half of it's food and iron ore. Manufactured goods made from this materials have been exported since the industrial age has begun.

Education of England and Wales is regulated by the Educational Act, 1944. The Ministry of Education is the central authority established by law. Scotland and Northern Ireland have educational systems of their own basically similar to that of England and Wales but differing considerably in details.

The system of public education in England and Wales is organised in three stages of Primary, Secondary and Further Education. The first two are compulsory for all children. Further education s voluntary. All children must, by law, go to school when they are five.

The academic year begins after summer halidays and is divided into three terms with the intervals between them formed by Christmas and Easter holidays. Day-schools mostly work on Mondays to Frrdays only, from 9 a.m. to between 3 and 4 p.m.

Great Britain is the country with old cultural traditions & customs. The most famous educational centre are Oxford & Cambridge Universities. They are considered to be the intellectual centres of Europe. Iton university is an establishment for future politicians. The United Kingdom is the constitutional monarchy. Queen is a Head of the State but her power is strongly restricted by elected parliament. In practice country is ruled by the elected Government with the Prime Minister in the head. The British Parliament consists of 2 chambers: the house of Lords & the house of Commons. In House of Lords now there are just over 1000 members of different grades of nobility: dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts and barons. In the House of Commons there are 650 members. They are elected by a secret ballot by men and women aged 18 and over. Every Parliament is limited to duration of five years. The life of parliament is divided into Sessions. Each of these may last a year and usually begins early in November. There are 3 main political parties in Great Britain: the labour, the conservatories ( the Tory) and the liberal (the Wigh). The conservative party is the ruling party nowadays. The UK is a member of UNO, UNESCO, NATO, EC. Prime-minister Anthony Blar; Queen Elisabeth II.

Topic 18: My Favorite Writer And Book
See also: Topic 10 - About Myself; Topic 12 - My Hobbies, Topic 22 – My Spare Time;

 Topic 9 – Famous people of Belarus

‘Reading is to mind what exercise is to body’. The rise of television sometimes has been coupled with the death of books. But I don’t think books need to be rescued. A book is one of the greatest wonders of the world. It gives us a unique chance to link up with authors who lived hundreds and thousands years ago.

Thanks to books we can talk to people who lived in different ages and countries. Through reading books we hear their voices, thoughts and feelings. The book is the surest way to bring nations together. It gives us an insight not only into the past, but also into the future. The book is faithful and undemanding friend: it can be put aside and by taken again at any moment.

As for me, I become very keen on literature early in life. We have a very good library at home, and I think that books stir my imagination, expand the boundaries of the familiar world and fill my life with great expectations of joy and happiness.

My grandparents taught me a love of reading. When I was a child they read books to me. I was pleased to listen to the stories and tales. Later I could read myself. I was fond of reading about animals, nature and children. Then I prefer books about travels. And now I can say that I’m crazy about books. I am rather choosy about what I read and I it is rather hard for me to choose books to my taste. As English proverb says: ’Books and friends should be few but good’. Sometimes I like to relax with a good book. Luckily our country is rich in remarkable authors.

First of all I’d like to mention the names of our outstanding national writers Yanka Kupala and Yakub Kolas, the voices of Belarus. They created a new Belorussian literature and Belorussian literary language. Both are considered to be the classics of Belorussian literature. These names are followed by a number of other well-known writers and poets, such as K.Krapiva, K.Chorny, P.Brovka, I. Shamyakin, I.Melezh, M.Tank, V. Bykov, V.Korotkevitch, N.Gilevitch, A.Loyka, A.Adamovitch who known both in our country and abroad. Their works are translated into many European languages. As for me, I’m delighted with M.Bogdanovich’s poetry. He was one of the wonderful Belorussian lyricists. He lived only 25 years but raised Belorussian literature to the world level. His poems, preserving their profoundly national spirit, express real pain for his people. His poems and songs are of interest to all people everywhere in the world. I am Belorussian, and I’m proud of my country, its history, its culture and famous people of our republic. Now I’d like to say some word about Yanka Kupala.

Yanka Kupala (Ivan Dominikovich Lutsevich) was the most talented and prominent writer of poetry and prose in modern Belorussian literature. He was born on the 8th of July 1882, in Vyazynka, in the Vileyka district of central Belarus. His parents were tenants of a small farm. His first works were published as early as 1905 and the first collection of his poems, "The Flute", which appeared in 1908 , demonstrated the unusual talent of the bard of the Belorussian peasantry. Kupalas poetic horizons soon began to expand beyond peasant problems and experiences and the idea of national liberation penetrated his writings. At the same time he was perfecting him self as an artist. It was not long before he became not only the most prominent and representative poet of Belarus but also the spiritual leader of his people, who were awakening to national political consciousness.

His next poetic works were "The Bard" (1910) and his most artistic and mature collections, "Along the Road of Life" (1913), "Heritage" (1922) and "Nameless" (1925). Kupala was not only a poet but also a writer of prose and plays. He wrote two symbolic dramatic poems "Eternal Song" (1908) and "A Dream on a Burial Mound" (1910); a dramatic show "The Halt", a comedy in prose "Paulinka" (1912), a national social drama "The Scattered Nest" (1913), a farce and a satirical tragi-comedy "The Natives" (1920). The main sources of Kupalas writings are Belorussian oral folk literature and his own knowledge of his people s way of life. He wrote much about the life of the Belorussian peasants and about the liberation of his country. His works include a number of political satires. There are also poems about nature, and love lyrics, as well as poems based on folk legends. Technically Kupalas poetry has unusually vigorous and musical rhythms, rich and varied forms and vivid imagery pervaded by spiritual feeling.

 Kupalas influence on the Belorussian people was immense. From the artistic point of view his writings enriched and developed the literary language of modern Belarus.

The patriotic poetry of Kupala has not lost its national revolutionary influence even today. Kupala has become the acknowledged poet and prophet of the Belorussian national rebirth.

Also I’ve read one interesting article. It is about a park, which is situated not far from the city of New York and is called Arrow Park. You can see four monuments standing there to honour the memory of Alexander Pushkin, Taras Schevchenko, Walt Whitman and Yanka Kupala, poets, who sang so dramatically, so passionately about their peoples hardships and sufferings, their joys and sorrows.

The Yanka Kupala monument was erected in 1973. Sculptor Anikeychik, the author of the monument and Makayonak, the famous Belorussian playwright, were invited to be present at the unveiling of the statue.

It is my firm belief that books help us in self-education. The earliest alphabet, which is known to historians, is Shumerian alphabet. Unfortunately, history left us very few inscriptions made with Shumerian cuneiform characters. But people who lived not very far from Shumer – the Egyptians – left descendants much more information. Egyptologs have found many inscriptions on papyrus made with Egyptian ierogliphes. Now everybody can see these symbols which were made almost 2500 years ago in famous Egyptian Pyramids. The next ancient folk – Babylonians – left us a remarkable monument of ancient culture: King’s Hammurabi code of laws. Babylonian code was the first code of laws known to Mankind. It was written on stone with Babylonian cuneiform characters and was the only code until Greek and Roman ones. More developed Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman cultures left numerous documents and scientific and philosophical works. Names of ancient philosophers: Phales Miletian, Pifagor, Philolay, Aristotel, Platon, Aristarkh Samossian, Ptomelee and many others are now known even to schoolchildren. Their works greatly enriched the culture and knowledge of Mankind.

In Medieval Ages books were written and copied by hand. It was very long and slow process which took a lot of time and patience. There were very few books in the world and to have a book was a great luxury. That books were written on parchment adorned with coloured pictures, engravings and cowslips. Such books were created and copied by monks who were, maybe, the most educated people in Medieval Ages. Then printing came into our life. It’s possible to say that the man who invented printing was a genius. Johann Gutenberg’s (GER) name will be famous in ages. The first printing book was so called Gutenberg Bible. It was printed in 1456. The first English printed book was ‘Sayings of Philosophers’, printed by William Caxton in 1477. Russian pioneer of printing is Ivan Fyodorov. He issued the first Russian printed book ‘Apostol’ in1564. The first book published on the territory of present Belarus was the book ‘Малая падарожная кнiжка’ by the first printer Dr. Fr. Skaryna, a Belorussian from Polotsk. The book was printed in the town of Vilnya in 1522. Printing played an important role in the development of literature. From now on books become more available to the wide range of people.

I have many favorite books and, therefore, many favorite writers. I enjoy reading books of Gerald Durrell, Thor Heyerdahl, Jaques Ives Cousto, Igor Bunitch, Alexander Stepanov, Nikolay Novikov-Priboy and many others. My favorite branches of literature are historical and technical literature and sometimes adventures.

Books... I think we can’t live without them. I consider that books are with us during all our life. I’m fond of reading and I have a lot of them at home. I think that a house looks glum and joyless without books.

Literature means much in my life. It helps to form the character and the world outlook, to understand life better. Books give information and knowledge, educate, give pleasure and sometimes they help people to forget about problems.

Ivan Sergeevitch Turgenev

There are some names in Russian & foreign literature that are very dear to me. Chehov is one of the greatest authorities to me. In Russian literature I value Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev highly too. For me he is a real intellectual & aristocrat, a man of culture, devoted to literature, music & painting. He created a number of national characters in his books. The image of Turgenev's woman, deeply feeling, faithful & tender is an ideal of Russian woman for me. It doesn't lose its charm even today. Turgenev's description of nature are delightful too. Take for example his 'Byezhin Prairie'. Turgenev's prose is very poetic. His style is perfect, his dialogues are easy-read interesting, life-like, jet always significant.

Arthur Conan Doyle

My favourite foreign writer is Arthur Conan Doyle ( 1859- 1930 ). He was a great writer. He was born in Scotland of Irish parents. He was a doctor. In 1882 he moved from Scotland to England to set up a practice. His medical knowledge was a great help to him in his detective stories. Conan Doyle started the fashion of detective story. He created his famous character, Sherlock Holmes, in 1885. Six years later, when Conan Doyle wrote some stories about his detective, the name of Sherlock Holmes became a name that everybody knew. Holmes first appeared in a book called 'Study in Scarlet', 'The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes' made him famous all over the world. Conan Doyle was a famous writer. He became popular because of his love for people. He died in 1930.

Agatha Christie

Agatha Miller (Christie) was born in a small English town of Torquay in 1890. She had a very good singing voice and could be a good singer. But she was a very why young girl to become a singer.

Agatha Christie wrote 83 books, 17 plays, nine volumes of short stories. Her characters were: doctors, lawyers, army offices and others. All crime described by Christie usually take place in common English homes. It is very difficult to gueas the murderer and solve the crime in her stories. You feel interested and puzzled to the and of the story. That's why people love her stories.

In 1914 she married a British airman. When the war broke out she became a nurse during World War I. Agatha practiced pharmacy. At this time she wrote her first detective story. Later people liked Heroule Poirot and friend Hastings who were introduced in her first stories. She continued to publish one or two stories a year. Poison was a preferred method of her criminals. People like and enjoyed 'The A. B. C Murders' , 'The Thirteen Problems' , 'The Boby in the Library' and many others. There are many films based on her novels. The films are really trilling: 'The Witness for the Prosecution' , 'The Mousetrap' , 'Ten Negroes' , ' The Murder on the Orient Express'.

Certainly Agatha Christie was influenced by Conan Doyle because all the crime were solved by two detectives in whom you can easily recognize Holmes and his friend Watson. Another favourite detective was Miss Marple. This old lady was clever, wise and her psychological insight never failed her. All three detectives used 'grey cells' and always solved the crimes.

Topic 19: London
See also: Topic 17 - Great Britain

London is one of the most enjoyable cities in the world. Visited by tourists in million, the city offers them the astonishing variety of scenes. In this historic city the modern rubs shoulders with the old, the present is ever conscious of the past, the great & the small live side by side in mutual tolerance & respect, & in every part of London’s busy & complex life there is to be found a very genuine affection for all her traditions & her fortunes.

London is situated in the Thames valley. From the earlist times the prosperity and even the existence of London depended upon its water-born tradeand now London is one of the largest ports of the world.

The first mayor of the city was elected in 1193 but for more that a thousand years before that London had been a place of some importance. It was founded by Romans and had a name of Londinium (1 BC – 1 AD). The first mention about ths city can be found in works of Tacit. The Romans, the Saxons and the Danes settled here in turn, and after them came the Normans. With the passing years London continued to grow in importance and its position as the seat of the government was firmly secured.

London survived the Plague (1665), which killed more than 10.000 people, and the Great Fire which followed (1666). Little damage occurred during WWI, but WWII brought tremendous destruction. Many buildings of great historic value were laid in ruins and today the face of London is changed. Yet, much was spared, including the Tower, St. Paul’s and Westminster Abbey.

London has buildings that express all the different areas of its history, for London manages in a unique way to reflect the past & in the same time to fulfill the functions of the modern city. There always something new to be discovered, some fresh approach to a familiar scene, some new piece of history to be investigated.

Traditionally London is divided into several parts: the City, Westminster, the East End & the West End. The West End consists of the fasionable houses of the rich people, of art galleries, many famous museums, theatres, palaces and parks. The East End was ind stiil is the poorer district full of factories. The City is a small area in the very centre of London. Major part of state and administrative buildings are situated in the City.

The Houses of Parliament (Westminster):

From the center of Westminster Bridge, one can have a splendid view of the Houses of Parliament, which spread magnificently on the north bank of the Thames. This structure is a remarkable example of Gothic architecture. The Clock tower, which contains the hour-bell called ‘Big Ben’, is known the world over. The bell is named after Sir Benjamin Hall, the first Commissioner of Works when the Houses of Parliament were rebuilt (in 1850).

Royal Palaces & houses were built along the banks of the Thames in medieval days, because the water was the busy way into & out of London. The Houses of Parliament, called officially the Palace of Westminster, were formerly a palace for kings & queens. The palace was used both as a royal residence & also as a parliament house until the 16^th century. In the course of the sixteenth century when the Royal family moved to the new palace within half a mile of Westminster – Whitehall Palace, the Westminster Palace was occupied by Parliament and became its permanent home. So the site of Westminster Palace had been involved with the government of England for 500 years.

The Parliament of the United Kingdom of the Great Britain and Northern Ireland consists of the House of Lords & the House of Commons .The House of Lords consists of just over 1.000 members of different grades of nobility - dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts & barons – which they gain hereditary. Benches of the House are covered in red leather and are arranged in ffive rows on either side of the House. Members of the Government and supporters are sitting to the right of the Throne and Opposition to the left. The speaker of the House is Lord Chancellor who seats on a woolsack – the symbol of wealth and prosperity. By tradition the woolsack is stuffed with wool from England, Scotland, Wales, Northern ireland and from the Commonwealth countries. In the House of Commons there are 650 members. They are elected by secret ballot by men & women aged 18 & over. The benches in this House are covered in green leather. The floor of the House is covered by a green carpet bearing on either side a red stripe, over which no Member may cross when addressing the House. Every Parliament is limited to a duration of five years. The life of Parliament is divided into Sessions. Each of these may last a year & usually begins in November. Queen enters the Palace of Westminster only on the day of the State Opening of Parliament at the beginning of the session; crowned and wearing many of the finest crown jewels, she makes her speech from the Throne in the House of Lords. She also has a power to summon and dissolve Parliament.