PARAGRAPH 1

PARAGRAPH 2

PARAGRAPH 3

PARAGRAPH 4

PARAGRAPH 5

PARAGRAPH 6

A The advantages of the division of labour

В Technology has replaced a lot of human labour

С Two ways to organise labour

D The disadvantages of the division of labour

E Division of labour in history

F Making best use of what's available

ВАРИАНТ 5

Surplus

In a free market, price is decided by the laws of supply and demand. The market price is the price that sellers are happy to take and consumers are happy to pay. It's a compromise, but in the end everyone is happy, right? Well, not quite everyone. Some sellers will think the market price is not a good enough reward for their efforts. They will continue to sell at a higher price, even if almost no one walks through their shop door. Similarly, some people will walk away from the market, moaning about the price and refusing to pay. You can't please everyone!

However, there will be some people who are more than happy with the market price. What makes them so cheerful? These are the people who had expected to pay a higher price, but found that the market price was actually lower. These people feel that, by paying the market price, they have got a bargain. In the jargon of economics, they have got consumer surplus. Consumer surplus is the difference between the price consumers are prepared to pay and the price they really do pay.

The idea of consumer surplus is shown in figure B l on page 47. M is the market price. You can see that the demand line carries on above the market price. This means that there are consumers who are prepared to pay above the market price.

Each of these consumers will gain a different amount of consumer surplus by paying the market price. Together, all the surplus they gain is called the aggregate consumer surplus. This is the grey area shown in figure 1.

Consumers aren't the only ones who enjoy surplus. There is producer surplus, too. Remember that the law of supply says supply rises as price rises. This is because smaller amounts cost less to produce than larger amounts. For this reason, producers would have been happy to sell some of their output below market price. However, once the market price is set, they can sell all their produce at that price.

Think about wine producers for example. The first 50 litres of their wine cost two euros per litre to produce. The next 50 litres cost three euros per litre to produce. At the market, however, they can sell all their wine at the price of three euros per litre. The extra money they make on the first 50 litres is the producer surplus. The higher the market price is, the bigger the producer surplus will be. The total is called the aggregate producer surplus. This is the pink area in figure 1.

Surplus is an important concept. In one way it is a measure of the utility that consumers gain from their purchase. It is also a measure of the profit that producers make. Moreover, consumer and producer surplus together are a measure of the benefit everyone gains from the economic transaction. In economist jargon, surplus is a measure of economic welfare.

Переведите на английский язык:

1.    Рыночная цена является вознаграждением за усилия производителя.

2.    Если цена на рынке ниже, чем ожидалось, покупатель может сделать выгодное приобретение.

3.    Избыток измеряет ту полезность, которую извлекает из покупки потребитель, или ту прибыль, которую получает производитель.

4.    Разница между той ценой, которую потребители готовы заплатить, и ценой, которую они действительно платят, называется избытком потребителя, что является важным экономическим понятием.

5.    Компании используют много уловок при ценообразовании, что помогает им повышать прибыль. Цены могут быть установлены выше или ниже рыночной цены, иногда компании используют ценовую дискриминацию.

6.    Всё более популярными становятся интернет-аукционы. Участники аукциона делают ставки, и самая высокая ставка выигрывает.

Surplus

1. Choose the correct answer A, B, or С from the list below.

1. Children often complain and … when they don't get what they want.

2. A cheerful person is … .

3. Parents are responsible for their children's … until they become adults.

4. If you get a bargain, you get something … .

5. The police are offering a … for any information about the robbery.

6. If you work faster you … more money or more free time.

7. You cant always get everything you want. Sometimes you have to … .

8. Every profession has its own … - special words and phrases that are only used in that profession.

9. The total spending by a government is sometimes called … spending.

10. If you have a … of something, you have more than you need.

1. A bargain       B compromise       С moan

2. A happy             В sad         С strange

3. A rewards       B welfare   C jargon

4. A for nothing    В at a high price    С at a good price

5. A reward           В salary      C compromise

6. A bring              B reward    C gain

7. A moan              В compromise       C bargain

8. A moan              В compromise       С jargon

9. A whole             В aggregate С complete

10. A shortage                   В surplus    C quantity